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HANDBOOK 



MEDIEVAL 

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 



WILHELM PUTZ, 

PRINCIPAL TUTOR AT THE GYMNASIUM OF DUREN. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, 



REV. R. B. PAUL, M. A., 

vicar of st. Augustine's, Bristol, and late fellow 

of exeter college, oxford. 

■ •* 



^ 



NEW-YORK 

D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 

PHILADELPHIA: 
GEO. S. APPLETON, 164 CHESNUT-STREET. 




v^ 



? - \ 



3i\l 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 

D. APPLETON & CO., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of 
New-York. 



PREFACE 

BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR, 



The characteristics of this volume are the same as those 
of the first : precision, condensation, and luminous ar- 
rangement. It is precisely what it pretends to be — a 
manual, a sure and conscientious guide for the student 
through the crooks and tangles of mediaeval history. 
Many things of course are omitted ; many rather indi- 
cated than developed ; — but all the great principles of 
this extensive period are carefully laid down, and the 
most important facts skilfully grouped around them. 
There is no period of history for which it is more diffi- 
cult to prepare a work like this, and none for which it is 
so much needed. The leading facts are well established, 
but they are scattered over an immense space ; the prin- 
ciples are ascertained, but their development was slow, 
unequal, and interrupted. There is a general breaking 
up of a great body, and a parcelling of it out among 
small tribes, concerning whom we have only a few gene- 
ral data, and are left to analogy and conjecture for the 
details. Then come successive attempts at organization, 
each more or less independent, and all very imperfect. 
At last, modern Europe begins slowly to emerge from 
the chaos, but still under forms which the most diligent 
historian cannot always comprehend. To reduce such 



IV PREFACE. 

materials to a clear and definite form is a task of no 
small difficulty, and in which even partial success de- 
serves great praise. It is not too much to say, that it has 
never been so well done within a compass so easily mas- 
tered, as in the little volume which is now offered to 
the public. 

In the English edition there were no references. It 
would have been easy to supply this want by a long list 
of the sources of mdiseval history, which the student into 
whose hands this volume will fall would never have 
taken the trouble to read. I have preferred giving a 
reference for each section to works which are accessible 
to all, and where more copious indications will be found 
by those who wish to push their inquiries, further. For 
greater convenience it is printed collectively in the Ap- 
pendix. 

Geo. W. Greene. 

Brown University, March 5, 1850. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

I. Germany before the Migrations. 

§ 1. Geography of Germany in the First Century after 
Christ ...... 

Soil and products 

Tribes ..... 

2. Religion, manners, and customs, in the First Century 

of the Christian era .... 

Political constitution, war . 

3. History of the Germans to the period of the migrations 
The German tribes .... 

The Cimhri and Teutones . 

Germany in the time of Julius Csesar . 

Conquests of Drusus and Tiberius 
The two first unions of German tribes . 
The empire of the Marcomanni and confederacy of 
the cherusci ..... 

War between the two confederacies . 

The Batavian war of liberation 

The Marcomannic War 

More extensive confederacies in the West and 
East ..... 

II. The Migrations. 

§ 4. Destruction of the Gothic empire by the Huns 

5. General immigration of the Barbarians into the coun 

tries of the West .... 

6. Dissolution of the Hunnish empire 

7. Dissolution of the Western Roman empire 

THE MIDDLE AGES. 

First Period — from the dissolution of the Western Empire 
to the accession of the Carlovingians and Abbasides. 

A. The West. 

$ 8. Empires in Italy . . . . .13 

I. The Italian empire established by German 

mercenaries under Odoacer . . 13 

II. Empire of the Ostrogoths in Italy . 13 

III. Byzantine dominion in Italy . . 14 

IV. Empire of the Langobardi . . 15 



1 

1 
2 

3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 

5 

5 

6 

66 



9 

11 
12 



1 CONTENTS. 

§9. Empire of the Vandals in Africa . . 

Extent of the empire ... 
History ..... 

10. Empire of the Suevi in Spain 

11. Empire of the Visigoths 

Extent of the empire . 

History ..... 

12. Empire of the Burgundians in Gaul 

13. Empire of the Franks under the Merovingians * 

The Frankish empire under the administration of 
the majores domus .... 

14. Religion, manners, and customs of the West, particu- 

larly of the Frankish empire 

1. Eeligion ..... 

a. The introduction of Christianity 

b. The monastic life .... 

c. Relation of the* Church to the State 

2. Political constitution 

a. Origin and development of the German States 

b. The feudal system 

c. Legislation .... 

3. Manners and customs . 

4. Scientific knowledge 

5. Art 



PAGE 
16 

16 
16 
17 
17 
17 
17 
19 
19 

21 

22 
22 
22 
22 
24 
24 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
28 



B. The East. 

ty 15. The Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) empire . \ 28 

History . . . . . . 29 

I. Period of the rise of the empire, from the year 

395 to the death of Justinian in 565 . . 29 
II. Period of the decline of the empire, from 565 to the 

accession of the Macedonian emperor in 867 31 
Political constitution, arts, and sciences. 

1. The constitution . . . .33 

2. Language and literature ... 33 

3. Art . . . . . .34 

4. Commerce and manufactures . . 34 

5. Manners . . . . . .35 

16. The Arabians- 

Geography of Arabia .... 35 
History of the Arabians, 

1. From Mohammed to the dynasty of the Om« 

maijades . . . . .36 

2. The Ommaijad caliphs ... 37 
Religion arts and sciences. 

1. Creed of the Arabians . . .39 

2. Political constitution ... 39 

3. Arts and sciences . . . .40 

4. Trade and manufactures ... 40 

17. The modern Persian empire — 

Boundaries . . . . . .41 

History . ... . . . 41 



CONTENTS. 



C. The North-east of Europe. 

§ 18. The Sclavonians 
19. Other nations in the East of Europe- 

1. The Avares . 

2. The Bulgarians . 

3. The Chazares 



VII 
PAGE 

42 

43 
43 
44 



Second Period — from the accession of the Carlovingians 
and abbasides to the first crusade. 

A. The West. 

§ 20. The Frankish empire under the Carlovingians . 44 

1. Pepin the Short .... 44 

2. Charlemagne . . . . .45 
The wars of Charlemagne ... 45 

a. Conquest of Lombardy . . . .45 

b. Wars with the Saxons ... 45 

3. War in Spain . . . . .46 

4. War with the Avares . . / 47 

5. War against the Danes and Wilzes . . 47 
Restoration of the Western Roman empire . 47 
Charlemagne's administration. 

a. Ecclesiastical and educational establishments . 48 

b. Legislation ..... 49 

c. The Constitution . . . . .49 
' Lewis the Pious . . . . . 51 

Pedigree of the Frankish kings . . .52 

Successors of Lewis the Pious ... 53 

Lewis the German . . . . .53 

Charles the Bald .... 53 

Lothar . . . . . .53 

Lewis II. . . . . . 54 

Portions of the Frankish empire . . .54 

1. The Western empire ... . 54 

2. Germany . . . . .54 

3 and 4. Burgundy cis and transjuranic . 54 

5. Italy . . . . . .54 

Domestic History . . . . 54 

21. The East Frankish empire under the two last Carlo- 

vingians — 

1. Arnulf . . . . . .56 

2. Lewis the Child . . . . 56 

22. Empire of the East Franks under Conrad I. of Fran- 

conia. 

23. The German empire under Kings of the house of 

Saxonv — 

1. Henry I. (the Fowler) . . . .57 

2. Otho I. (the Great) ... 58 

3. Otho II. ..... 60 

4. Otho III. ..... 60 

5. Henry II. (the Saint) . . . . 60 



Vlll 



CONTENTS. 



§ 24. The German empire under the Franconian emperors — 

1. Conrad II. ... 

2. Henry III 

3. Henry IV 

War with the Saxons .... 

Contests between Gregory VII. and the princes 
of Germany .... 

Rebellion of the sons of Henry IV. against their 
father ..... 

4. Henry V. .... 
Changes in the Constitution during the Saxon and 

Franconian period — 
The Monarchy .... 
The Dukes .... 

25. Italy— 

A. The kingdom of Italy . 

B. Venice . . . ; 

C. Papal Italy, or States of the Church . 

D. Lower Italy 

E. The Islands .... 

26. France under the last Carlovingians — 

1. Otho ..... 

2. Charles III 

3. Robert . • 

4. Rudolph .... 

5. Lewis IV. (the Stranger) . 

6. Lothar ..... 

7. Lewis V. (Faineant) 

27. France under the four first Capets — 

1. Hugh Capet .... 

2. Robert .... 

3. Henry ..... 

4. Philip I 

28. England under the "West Saxon Kings — 

Alfred the Great .... 

29. Supremacy of the Danes in England — 

Canute ..... 
Harold ..... 

Hardicanute .... 

30. Restoration and extinction of the Anglo-Saxon dy 

nasty — 
Edward III. (the Confessor) 
Harold II. .... 

31. Scotland . . . 

32. Ireland ..... 

33. Spain ...... 

B. The East. 

() 34. The Byzantine empire under the Macedonian emperors 
35. The Arabians under the Abbasides . 

C. The North-east of Europe. 
^ 36. Scandinavia .... 

1. Norway and Iceland 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



2. Sweden ...... 

3. Denmark ..... 
§ 37. Russia . . . . . ■ . 

38. Poland ...... 

39. Hungary ...... 

40. Religion, Arts, Sciences, &c, during the Second 

Period — 
The Church . . . . 

Arts and Sciences .... 

Trade and manufacturing industry 



PAGE 

80 
80 
81 
82 
82 



83 
84 



Third Period — Age of the Crusades. 

41. The Crusades — 

The first crusade .... 
The second crusade 

The third crusade .... 
The (so-named) fourth crusade 
The crusade of Frederick II. 
The sixth crusade 
The seventh crusade 
Results of the crusades. 

A. Political consequences — 

1. To the hierarchy . 

2. To the sovereigns of Europe . 

3. To the nobility . . 

4. To the burgher order 

5. To the peasant order 

B. Consequences to Trade and Manufactures 

1. To maritime enterprise 

2. To the overland trade 

3. To manufacturing industry . 

C. To the sciences 

A. The West. 

§ 42. The German empire under Lothar the Saxon — 
Pedigree of the Guelphs and Hohenstaufen 

43. The German empire under the Hohenstaufen — 

1. Conrad III. . 

2. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) 

First Italian campaign 
Second Italian campaign 
Third visit to Italy 
Fourth Italian campaign 
Fifth Italian campaign 
Sixth visit to Italy 

3. Henry VI. . 

4. Philip of Swabia \ 
Otho IV. $ 

5. Frederick II. 

6. Conrad IV. 

44. The interregnum in Germany 



87 



90 
91 

92 
92 



92 
93 
93 
94 
95 

95 
95 
95 
96 



97 

98 

98 

99 

99 

100 

100 

100 

101 

101 

102 

103 
104 
105 



X' CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
§ 45. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies — 

a. Under the Normans .... 105 

b. Under the Hohenstaufen . . . 105 

c. Under the house of Anjou ... . 106 

46. France — 

5. Louis VI. (the Fat) . . .106 

6. Louis VII. . . . .106 

7. Philip II 107 

8. Louis VIII 108 

9. Louis IX 108 

47. England — 

a. Under Norman Kings. 

Pedigree ..... 109 

1. William the Conqueror . . . 109 

2. William II. (Rufus) . . .109 

3. Henry 1 109 

4. Stephen . . . . .109 

b. Under the four first Kings of the house of Anjou 

or Plantagenet — 

1. Henry II 110 

2. Richard Coeur de Lion . . . 110 

3. John . . . . . .110 

4. Henry III Ill 

48. Spain .... . 112 

Arabian ..... 112 

Christian . . . . . .112 

49. Portugal 112 

B. The East. 

§ 50. The Byzantine empire — 

1. Under the Comneni and Dukas . . 113 

2. Under the house of Angelus . . 114 

3. The Latin empire .... 114 
§ 51. The Arabians ..... 114 

52. The Seldschuks . . . . .115 

53. The Mongols ..... 115 

C. The North-east of Europe. 



54. 


Scandinavia — 




1. Iceland . . . . . . 116 




2. Norway ..... 116 




3. Sweden . . . . . .116 




4. Denmark . . . . . 116 


55. 


Russia ....... 117 


56. 


Poland under the Piasts .... 117 


57. 


Prussia ...... 118 


58. 


Hungary under the Arpads . . . 118 


59. 


Religion, Arts, Manufactures, &c, during the Third 




Period — 




1. The Church . . . . .119 




2. Political Constitution . . .120 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

3. Legislation and legal practice . . . 122 

4. Sciences ..... 122 

5. Art 123 

a. Poetry ..... 124 

b. Architecture .... 124 

c. Sculpture and Painting . . 124 

6. Commerce ..... 125 

7. Manufactures .... 126 



Fourth Period — from the termination of the Crusades 
to the discovery of America. 

§ 60. Germany and Switzerland — 

Geographical view of Germany between the years 
1300 and 1500. 

1. The seven electorates . . . 126 

2. The duchies . . . 127 

3. The principalities .... 127 

4. The Margravate of Baden . 127 

5. The Langravates of Alsace, Hesse, and Thu- 

ringia ..... 127 

6. The Burgravate of Niirnberg . . 127 

7. Several Counties .... 127 

8. The Archbishoprics . ' . 127 

9. Bishoprics . . . . .127 
10. Free imperial cities . . . 127 

1. Kings of different houses — 

1. EudolfofHabsburg . . -. .127 

2. Adolphus of Nassau . . . 128 

3. Albert I. (of Austria) . . .128 

4. Henry VII. (of Luxemburg) . . 129 

5. Louis IV. (the Bavarian) . . .129 

2. Kings of the house of Luxemburg — 

1. Charles IV ■ 130 

2. "Wenzel, or Wenceslaus . . . 132 

3. Wenzel and Rupert . . .132 

4. Sigismund . . . . .133 
The Council of Constance . . . 133 

Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague 134 
The Hussite War . . . .134 

8. Kings of the house of Austria — 

1. Sigismund .... 135 

2. Frederick III. . . . .135 
61. The States of Italy. 

A. In Upper Italy — 

1. Venice ..... 136 

2. Milan . . . . . .137 

3. Genoa ..... 137 

B. In Central Italy — 

1. Florence . . . . .137 

2. States of the Church . . .137 



CONTENTS. 



C. In Lower Italy — 

1. Naples 138 

2. Sicily 138 

§ 62. France— 

A. Under the last Capets — 

10. Philip III 138 

11. Philip IV (le Bel) . . , 138 
Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV. . 139 

A. Under Kings of the house of Valois . 139 

1. Philip VI 140 

2. John (the Good) .... 140 

3. Charles V. (the Wise) . . .140 

4. Charles VI. . . . 141 

5. Charles VII 141 

6. Louis XI 142 

7. Charles VIII. . . . .143 

63. England and Scotland. 

A. Kings of the house of Plantagenet — 

5. Edward I. .... 143 

6. Edward II 144 

7. Edward III 144 

8. Richard II. . . . . . 144 

B. Three Kinss of the house of Lancaster — 

1. Henry IV. . . . .145 

2. Henry V. ..... 145 

Pedie-ree of the houses of Lancaster and York 

3. Henry VI. .... 147 

C. Three Kings of the house of York — 

1. Edward IV 147 

2. Edward V. . . . 147 

3. Richard III 148 

64. The Pyrensean Peninsula — 

The Christian kingdoms . . . 148 

B. The East. 

ty 65. The Byzantine empire under the Palasologi . . 148 

66. The Osiuans ..... 149 

67. The Mongols . . . . . .149 

C. The North-east of Europe — 

§ 68. Scandinavia ..... 150 

69. Russia . . . . . . .150 

70. Poland 151 

1. Under the Piasts . . . • . 151 

2. Under the descendants of Jagello . . 151 

71. Prussia under the Teutonic order . . .152 

72. Hungary ...... 152 

73. Religion, Arts, Sciences, &c, during the Fourth 

Period — 

1. The Church . . . . .153 

2. Political Constitution . . . 154 

3. The Sciences . . . . .155 

4. Art 156 

5. Trade, Navigation, and Manufactures . . 157 



HANDBOOK 

OF 

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTOEY. 



PART II.— THE MIDDLE AGES. 



INTRODUCTION. 

1. Germany before the Migrations. 

§ 1. Geography of Germany in the First Century after 
Christ. 

Boundaries. The Roman provinces on the left bank 1 
of the Rhine, with some important stations on the right a 
bank, were protected partly by fortresses, partly by lines 
of pallisades and a rampart (vallum Romanum) which ex- 
tended from Ratisbon on the Danube (across the Mayn 
and Lahn) to Neuwied on the Rhine. All the territory 
southward and westward of this frontier belonged to the 
Roman empire, and was divided into Germania Superior 
or Prima (from Basle to Mainz), and Germania Inferior 
or Secunda (from Mainz to the country of the Batavi). 
The rest of Germany (between the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, B 
and North Sea) was occupied by independent native 
tribes. 

Soil and Products. According to the Roman writers, 2 
Csesar and Tacitus, the soil of Germany in their time was 
little better than a succession of steppes, morasses, and 
wild tracts of woodland ; one of which, called the Hercy- 
nian forest, was reported to be sixty days' journey in ex- 
tent. Hence the coldness of the climate, and the numerous 
animals, which now exist only in northern latitudes, such 
1 



2 GERMANY. [3 — 5. §1. 

(2) as rein-deer, elks, uruses, and bears. Their horses were 

A neither handsome nor swift ; the neat cattle numerous, but 

small. Fruit trees and every description of metal, except 

iron, were unknown. The only sorts of grain cultivated 

were oats and barley. 

Tribes. 

3 a) The Western Germans. 1. The Catti (Chassians or 
b Hessians) in the Hercynian forest. 2. The Frisii on 

the north-western coast, from the mouths of the Rhine 
to the Ems. Smaller tribes : the Usipetes and Tencteri 
on the Lower Rhine, the Sigambri [or Sicambri] on the 
Sieg. 

4 b) The Northern Germans. 1. The Chauci from the 
Ems to the Elbe ; and southward of these, 2. The Che- 
rusci, between the Weser and the Elbe. 

5 c) The Suevi (or Hermiones) a general name given by 
u Tacitus to all the nations in the interior of Germany. Of 

these tribes three are especially mentioned by the historian 
as forming a confederacy, political and religious ; viz. 1. 
The Senones, between the Elbe, the Oder, and the Spree, 
with the Langobardi, or Longobardi, on the left bank of 
the Elbe. 2. A confederacy of seven Suevic tribes between 
the Lower Elbe and the Baltic, who worshipped the god- 
dess Hertha, in a sacred grove on an island of the ocean 
D (Femern or Rugen ?). 3. The Lygii, on the Upper Oder. 
Besides these, there belonged to the Suevic stock : 1. In 
the north-east, the Gothones, between the Warthe and the 
Vistula ; and the iEstisei (Esthonians), at the mouth of the 
Vistula, on the amber coast. 2. In the south, the Her- 
munduri on the Upper Danube, the Marcomanni in Bo- 
hemia, the Quadi in Moravia. The language of these 
various tribes, no less than the peculiarities of their per- 
sonal appearance, (the bold blue eye, golden hair, lofty 
stature, and fair complexion,) are a sufficient indication 
of their common descent from a distinct and unmixed 
race. 



6 9. §2.] GERMANY. 3 

§ 2. Religion, Manners, and Customs in the First Century 
of the Christian Mr a. 

Religion. The Supreme Being was worshipped by 6 
the Germans under the names of Wodan (== Odin) and A 
Thor (the god of thunder) . Sacrifices were offered to these 
deities in groves and forests, and auguries drawn from the 
neighing and snorting of the white horses which were kept 
in honour of them. They believed in a future state of 
martial existence in Walhalla [Valhalla]. When a war- 
rior died, his arms, and in the case of chieftains, his horse, 
were burnt at the grave. 

Political Constitution. There was a distinction 7 
between freemen and serfs. Every member of the former b 
class enjoyed the privilege of being present in arms and 
taking part in the great national councils, which assembled 
regularly on the new and full moons, under the presidence 
of the elders or priests, for the purpose of deciding all im- 
portant state questions, electing officers, and trying crimi- 
nals. The assent of the assembly was expressed by a 
clattering of spears, and their disapprobation by a murmur. 
In these assemblies young men were solemnly declared 
capable of bearing arms. Their princes were chosen out of 
the most distinguished families, and their dukes or leaders 
from among the bravest warriors. The power of both 
these officers was limited. 

W ar. Their arms consisted of a short spear, called frame 8 
\framea\ and a shield of painted wood. Their order of c 
battle was in the form of a wedge, surrounded on three sides 
with a barricade of carriages, which sheltered the wives and 
children of the combatants. Before and during the engage- 
ment a battle-hymn was chanted by the bards. If the first 
attack was unsuccessful, they retired to their barricades, 
and renewed the fight, which was often won through the 
assistance afforded them by their wives and children. 

Manners and customs. The ancient Germans had 9 
no towns, nor even connected villages ; but lived in de- D 
tached wooden huts, thatched with straw, which were gene- 
rally erected near the centre of their common field. A 
number of these huts formed a mark, several marks a zent, 
and several zents a gau. Their ordinary dress in summer 
was a tunic, of wool for the men, and linen for the women ; 



4 GERMANY. [10. §3. 

(9) and in winter, a coat of skins. Next to war, the chief 
A business of their lives was the chase ; the cultivation of the 
soil, as well as all other manual labor, being left to their 
wives, children, and serfs. The Germans were fond of 
games of hazard, and passed a considerable portion of their 
time in banquets and drinking matches ; during which the 
sword or war-dance was performed for the amusement of 
the company, by naked youths, and the most important 
affairs were frequently discussed. Chastity, a religious 
observance of their conjugal obligations, and unbounded 
hospitality, were the distinguishing virtues of this rude 
B people. Atonement might be made for all crimes, including 
even murder itself, by the payment of a fine, consisting of 
a certain number of heads of cattle. 

§ 3. History of the Germans to the Period of the Migrations. 
A. The German tribes. 
10 It seems probable that the coasts of the Baltic were 
known from the remotest antiquity to Phoenician and Greek 
traders in amber ; but the first distinct accounts which we 
have of the Germans commence with the invasion of the 
Roman territory by separate tribes. Half German clans, 
for instance, from the Alps, joined the Gauls in their expe- 
dition against Rome ; and the Bastarnse formed an alliance 
c with Perseus. But the most fearful invasion was that of the 
Cimbri and Teutones (b.c. 1 1 3), who seem to have advanced 
upon Noricum from two distinct points. For their war 
with the Romans, see part i. 3, § 79. The next migration 
was that of the Marcomanni, under one of their princes 
named Ariovistus, who marched to the assistance of the 
Sequani against their enemies, the Edui (b.c 72) ; and 
after defeating them, continued to pour fresh troops into 
Gaul, until he was finally overthrown by Csesar at Vesontio 
(Besancon) (58), and compelled to recross the Rhine, 
n After an obstinate struggle, the Belgic Germans (Nervii, 
Aduatici, and Eburones) were subdued by Csesar, who 
crossed the Rhine twice without any result, extinguished 
an insurrection of the Belgse under Ambiorix, prince of 
the Eburones, took Germans into his pay, and with their 
assistance quelled an insurrection of the Gauls under 
Vercingetorix, completed the subjugation of Gaul, and 
gained the decisive victory of Pharsalus. Augustus 



11. §3.] GERMANY. 5 

formed a body-guard of Germans. His step-sons, Drusus (10) 
and Tiberius, conquered all the nations between the Alps A 
and the Danube. In order to subdue, also, the Low- 
German tribes, who were perpetually invading Roman 
Gaul, Drusus took whole German clans into his pay, built 
a fleet on the Rhine, which he united with the Yssel by 
means of the fossa Drusi, undertook four expeditions into 
Germany (b.c. 12 — 9), erected fortresses for the defence 
of the Roman territory (50 ? on the Rhine), and advanced 
as far as the Elbe. 

B. The two first unions of German tribes. — B 
The empireofthe Ma rcomanni and confederacy 
of the Cherusci. 

1. War of these two confederacies against 
Rome. 

After the death of his brother, Tiberius continued the 11 
war in Germany, and threatened Mar bod, the founder of 
the Marcomannic empire, which comprised all the S u e v i c 
tribes between the Elbe and Danube (the Marcomanni, 
Hermunduri, Langobardi, and Senones) ; but in conse- 
quence of the simultaneous revolt of Pannonia and Dalma- 
tia, he was compelled to grant peace on favorable terms. 
Although the Low-German tribes had been rather gained c 
over by promises and alliances than actually overcome, the 
Romans nevertheless considered themselves masters of all 
the country between the Rhine and the Elbe. The unjust 
severity of their governor, L. Quinctilius Varus, in com- 
pelling the Germans to adopt the Roman language, laws, 
and system of taxation, occasioned a confederation of 
the L o w-Ge r man tribes (Cherusci, Bructeri, and Marsi), 
under the command of Herman (son of a prince of the 
Cherusci named Siegmar), who had been educated at Rome. 
In spite of the warning given him by the traitor Segestus d 
(afterwards Herman's father-in-law), Varus, crediting the 
intelligence of a revolt on the Ems, suffered himself to be 
enticed into the Teutoburgian forest, where he was 
attacked by Herman [Arminius], and after losing three 
Roman legions, threw himself on his own sword (a.d. 9). 
On receiving intelligence of this disaster, Augustus dis- 
banded his German body-guard, and compelled all the 
German residents to quit Rome. In the years 14 — 16, 
throe campaigns in Germany, (principally against the Che- 



6 GERMANY. [12 14. §3. 

(11) rusci, Bructeri, Marsi, and Catti,) were undertaken by 
a Germanicus, the son of Drusus, who buried the bones of 
those who had fallen in the Teutoburgian forest, and de- 
feated Herman at Idistaviss [Idistavisus Campus], on the 
Weser. On the homeward voyage a part of his fleet was 
wrecked in a gale of wind, and Germanicus himself was 
recalled by Tiberius, before he had succeeded in re-esta- 
blishing the Roman supremacy in Germany. 

2. War between the two confederacies. 

12 The bravest of the Suevic tribes, the Langobardi and 
B Senones, renounced their allegiance to Marbod, and joined 

the Cheruscan league ; whilst, on the other hand, Hinkmar, 
the uncle of Herman, who envied his nephew's reputation, 
went over to the side of Marbod. The result of these 
secessions was a double intestine war. 1. Between the 
chiefs of the Cherusci. 2. Between the Cheruscan con- 
federacy and the Marcomannic empire (a.d. 19). After 
sustaining a defeat, Marbod was expelled from his king- 
dom by a Gothonian named Catwald ; and Herman, who 
was suspected of aiming at absolute power, was assassinated 
by his own relations (a.d. 22 ?). 

3. The Batavian war of liberation (69). 

13 After the dissolution of these two confederacies, the 
c domestic feuds of the Germans were fostered by the Ro- 
mans so effectually as to prevent, for a century and a half, 
the formation of any fresh leagues. An attempt, it is true, 
was made by the Batavi (exasperated by CI. Civilis) to unite 
several German tribes (Bructeri, Tencteri, Catti, Usipetes, 
Mattiaci, and, at a later period, the Trieri, Lingones, and 
Ubii) for a war of liberation ; but after sustaining several 
defeats, most of the clans were induced, either by bribery 
or by the fair promises of the Romans, to withdraw from 
the confederacy. 

4. The Marcomannic war, 166 — 180. 

14 Whilst the Romans were occupied with a war against 
d the Parthians, their provinces on the southern Danube 

were invaded by several clans, among whom we hear, for 
the first time, of the Vandals and Alans. The emperor 
Marcus Aurelius, after undertaking nine campaigns against 
these barbarians, died at Vienna, in the midst of his pre- 
parations for the tenth. His son Commodus, who wished 
to remain at Rome, granted peace to the Marcomanni, 



15, 16. § 3.] GERMANY. 7 

Quadi, &c, on condition of their furnishing a yearly con- (14) 
tingent. A 

C. More extensive confederacies in the W. 
and E. 

a. In Western Germany. 1. The Alemanni, a general 15 
name for the union (commenced by the Hermunduri) of 
the hitherto distinct Suevic tribes in the south-west, from 
the Mayn to the Alps. 2. The Franks, an appellation b 
indicating a similar union of Low- German clans, most of 
which had belonged to the Cheruscan league, but exclud- 
ing the Cheruscans themselves. 3. The Saxons, whose 
name and confederation extended southwards, from the 
Cimbrian Peninsula, their original settlement, to the fron- 
tiers of the Cheruscan territory. 

b. In Eastern Germany were also three confederacies : 
the Vandal, Gothic, and Alanic. 

These confederacies, the origin of which might be traced 16 
partly to the combination of different tribes against the c 
Romans, and partly to the extension of the feudal system, 
availed themselves of the confusion occasioned throughout 
the Roman empire, by the frequent change of rulers, to raise 
the standard of revolt on their respective frontiers. (About 
250.) Whilst the Rhenish border was distracted by the 
invasions of the Alemanni and Franks, the Goths appeared 
in Illyria and Thrace, and, in conjunction with the Heruli, 
carried on piratical warfare against the coasts and islands 
of the Archipelago, until the restoration of the ancient 
boundaries of the Roman empire by Aurelian, and the re- 
establishment by Probus, after many struggles, of the fron- 
tier wall between the Rhine and Danube. A great number 
of Germans were, at the same time, transplanted into the d 
Roman provinces. (Return to Germany of the Franks, 
who had been removed to the shores of the Pontus Euxi- 
nus.) After the death of Probus the frontier wall disap- 
peared ; the Alemanni became masters of the Upper 
Rhine, and extended their conquests into Vindelicia and 
Rhceti, whilst the Franks took possession of the Batavian 
islands, and forced their way through Belgium into Gaul. 
These encroachments were met, on the part of the Romans, 
by the establishment of additional settlements of German 
auxiliaries in their frontier provinces. At the head of 
these mercenaries Caesar Julianus defeated, near Strasburg, 



8 GERMANY. [17 19. §4. 

(16) a body of Alemanni who had invaded Gaul, and five times 
A pursued the Germans across the frontier into their own 
territory. Notwithstanding this check, the Alemanni soon 
afterwards recrossed the Rhine and Danube, and were again 
expelled from Gaul by Valentinian I.; a portion of those 
who had crossed the Danube being permitted to hold fiefs 
on the banks of the Po. 



II. The Migrations. 
§ 4. Destruction of the Gothic Empire by the Huns. 

17 The two branches of the Gothic empire had extended in 
b the fourth century ever the whole of north-eastern Europe; 

the Western Gothic [or that of the Visigoths] occupying 
all the territory between the Lower Danube and the Dnies- 
ter (including what is now Moldavia, Wallachia, and Po- 
dolia), and the Eastern Gothic [that of the Ostrogoths] 
extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea. The former 
of these empires was governed by an aged monarch named 
Hermanric, the latter by Athanaric. 

18 The Goths were the first German tribe who embraced 
c Christianity, according to the teaching of the heresiarch 

Arius. At the council of Nicsea, in 325, there appeared a 
Gothic bishop, Theophilus, whose successor, Ulphilas, trans- 
lated the four Gospels into the Gothic dialect. 

19 The Huns, who originally inhabited that part of eastern 
Asia which lies northwards of China, had rendered them- 
selves formidable to the Chinese empire long before their 
appearance in Europe ; and in the third century before 
Christ, the great wall of China had been erected as a bar- 
ID rier against them. At a later period the Hunnish empire 

was divided into two kingdoms, the northern of which was 
overthrown by a Tartaric clan, the Sienpi. The most 
warlike of their tribes, however, moved westwards, and, 
between the Volga and the Don, encountered the Alani 
(about 375), a portion of whom retreated before them, 
whilst the remainder surrendered, and were incorporated 
into their army. Reinforced by these new auxiliaries, the 
Huns assailed both the kingdoms of the Goths, who be- 
sought the emperor Valens to grant them lands on the right 



20 22. §5.] GERMANY. 9 

bank of the Danube. Only a portion of the West Goths, (19) 
[Visigoths] the Thervingians, were permitted to settle in a 
Moesia. These were soon goaded into revolt by the severity 
of the J&oman governors ; and calling in the Huns and Alani 
as auxiliaries, they crossed the Haamus into Thrace, attacked 
Valens (378) near Adrianople, and compelled him to take 
refuge in a hut, where he was accidentally burnt to death. 
His successor, Theodosius, beat back the Goths, who were 
advancing on Constantinople, and concluded a peace, by the 
terms of which, the West Goths were permitted to settle in 
Mcesia aud Dacia, and their allies, the Eastern Goths [Os- 
trogoths], in Asia Minor, on condition of their furnishing a 
contingent of mercenary troops, under their own com- 
manders. The Eastern emperor, Arcadius, having neg- b 
lected to pay the stipulated wages to these auxiliaries, the 
West Goths chose Alaric to be their king, and invaded 
Greece, which they were compelled to evacuate on the 
approach of Stilico, who advanced with a fleet to the relief 
of Peloponnesus. Alaric was invested with the prefec- 
ture of the East-Roman province of Illyricum. 

§ 5.- General Immigration of the Barbarians into the Coun- 
tries of the West. 

From Illyria, Alaric, at the head of the Visigoths, 20 
entered Italy in the year 403, but was twice defeated by c 
Stilico, at Pollentia and Verona. 

Soon after this invasion (406), several German clans ap- 21 
peared in Italy under the command of their prince, R ad a- 
gais. At the siege of Florence most of them either died 
of starvation or were taken prisoners and sold as slaves. 
A few cut their way through the enemy's army, and es- 
caped into Gaul. 

It was, however, towards the west, that the grand move- 22 
ment took place from the interior of Germany. The Bur- d 
gundians established themselves in eastern Gaul, on tfie 
Upper Rhine (407), whilst the Alani and Suevi entered 
Spain by the passes of the Pyrenees, and spread themselves 
over the Peninsula, the Vandals and Suevi occupying 
the western portion (Galicia), the Alani settling in Lusi- 
tania and Carthagena, and a division of the Vandals taking 
possession of the district called after them, Andalusia. 
1* 



10 GERMANY. [23 25. §5. 

(22) The Tarraconian province seems to have been the only 
A portion of the Peninsula which remained in the hands of 
the Romans. 

23 After the assassination of Stilico, Alaric, disgusted at the 
non-payment of the subsidies granted by Honorius, invested 
Rome, and was only induced to spare the city by the pro- 
mise of an enormous ransom. His overtures of peace 
having been rejected by the court of Ravenna, Alaric ap- 
peared a second time before Rome, in the year 400 ; but 
again raised the siege, and marched to Ravenna; then re- 
turned to Rome for the third time in 410, took the city by 
treachery (Aug. 24), and punished the inhabitants by allow- 

B ing six (?) days' pillage to his soldiers. He died at Con- 
sentia, on the march into Lower Italy, and was buried in the 
channel of the river Busentinus. His successor, Athaulf, 
concluded a peace with Honorius, and led the Visigoths 
into Gaul in 412, and into Spain in 414. His successor, 
Wallia, overthrew the Suevi, Vandals, and Alani, who had 
entered the country a short time before ; then recrossed 
the Pyrenees, and took possession of the districts ceded 
to him by Honorius in Aquitania (from Toulouse along 
the Garonne to the sea, called also Septimania), and 
chose Toulouse for the capital of his empire, which now 
extended a considerable distance on each side of the 
Pyrenees. 

24 The Vandals and Alani, in the year 429, accepted 
c an invitation from the Roman lieutenant, Bonifacius (who 

had fallen into disgrace at the court of his empress), and 
invaded the northern coast of Africa, where their 
king, Geiseric [Genseric], after the capture of Hippo and 
Carthage, founded the Vandalic empire, with Carthage 
for its capital. This empire comprehended also the islands 
of the western Mediterranean. 

25 Ever since the abandonment of Britain by the Roman 
D legions, the island had been ravaged by hordes of Picts and 

Scats. After applying in vain for protection to the Romans, 
the inhabitants invited the Saxons, Angles, and Jut- 
landers, who landed in the year 449, under the command 
of Hengist and Horsa, expelled the Picts, and settled in 
the island, where they gradually formed seven Anglo-Saxon 
kingdoms ; viz. Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northum- 
berland, East-Anglia, and Mercia. The Britons retired into 



86. §6.] GERMANY. 11 

Wales and Cornwall, or emigrated to the opposite coast of (25) 
^.rmorica (Bretagne). 

§ 6. Dissolution of the Hunnish Empire. 

The Huns, who, after the subjugation of the Eastern Goths 2(3 
[Ostrogoths], had been wandering for fifty years about a 
Southern Russia, Poland, and Hungary, again became for- 
midable under the command of their king, Attila, orEtzel 
(the scourge of God), who reigned in conjunction with his 
brother Bleda, from 434 to 444, and alone from 444 to 453. 
The Roman emperors of the east and west having united for 
the purpose of rescuing Africa from the Vandals, Geiseric 
persuaded Attila to invade the eastern empire. After thrice b 
defeating Theodosius II., Attila appeared before Constan- 
tinople ; but being unacquainted with the art of attacking 
fortified places, he contented himself with exacting a yearly 
tribute, in addition to the payment already guaranteed by 
Arcadius, and compelling the emperor to cede a district of 
Thr-ace. Then he entered Gaul at the head of 700,000 men, 
but was defeated on the C a t a 1 a u n i a n plain, at Chalons 
sur Marne (451), by the united forces of the West Goths 
under their king Theodoric, and the Romans under their 
general Aetius. In this engagement, the most sanguinary, c 
perhaps, that ever occurred in Europe (106,000 slain), Ger- 
mans were opposed to each other, some of them serving in the 
Roman army, and others in that of the Huns. King Theo- 
doric was slain. The following year (452) Attila demanded 
in marriage Honoria, sister of Valentinian III., requiring 
half the empire as her dowry. This proposal being rejected, 
he suddenly entered Italy, sacked Aquileia, and plundered 
all the cities of Lombardy, the inhabitants of which fled in 
great numbers to the islands in the lagunes of the Adriatic, 
where thejr founded the city of Venice. The Romans, d 
headed by their pope, Leo I., petitioned for peace, which 
was granted by Attila. After his death, in the following 
year (453), his empire, which had extended from the Rhine 
to the eastern bank of the Volga, rapidly crumbled away ; 
the nations which had hitherto been subject to the Huns 
driving them back to the shores of the Black Sea, and 
forming kingdoms of their own, the Gepidae in Dacia, the 
East Goths in Pannonia, and, at a later period, in Thrace. 



12 GERMANY. [27. §7. 

§ 7. Dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. 

27 The progress of the Germanic tribes was favored by the 
A intestine confusion of the Western Roman empire, the capi- 
tal of which was plundered for fourteen days by the Van- 
dals, in 455, and its sceptre wielded by a Suevian named 
Ricimer, in the name of a succession of puppets, who bore 
the title of emperor. The West Goths [Visigoths] extend- 
ed their empire in Gaul to the Loire, the Rhone, and the 
Ocean, and put an end to the Roman dominion in Spain, 
where there remained only the little kingdom of the Suevi, 
in Galicia and Lusitania.. The Burgundians spread still 
more widely in south-eastern, and the Franks in central 
Gaul. Two attempts of the Romans to reconquer Africa 
B were rendered abortive by Geiseric, who annihilated their 
fleet. Finally, Adoacer, who had entered the Roman ser- 
vice as a mercenary, at the head of a band composed of 
Heruleans, Rugians, &c, and had been refused a third 
of the lands in Italy, put an end to the empire of the West 
by deposing the emperor Romulus Augustulus, and was 
proclaimed king of Italy by his German mercenaries, in 
476. The Roman possessions in Gaul were retained for 
a time by Syagrius, who was finally defeated by Chlodwig 
[Clovis], at Soissons, and compelled to evacuate the pro- 
vince in the year 486. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 

First Period. 

From the Dissolution of the Western Empire to the Accession of the 
Carlovingians and Abbasides, 476 — 752 (750). 

A. The West. 
§ 8. Empires in Italy. 

I. The Italian empire established by German 28 
mercenaries under Odoacer (476 — 490). a 

Theodoric, king of the Eastern Goths [Ostrogoths], who 
had embraced the tenets of Arianism during his residence as 
a hostage at Constantinople, and subsequently taken service 
in the' armies of the eastern empire, proposed to the emperor 
Zeno a plan for reconquering Italy with his Goths. This 
proposal being accepted, Theodoric fought his way through 
the territories of the Gepidse, and defeated Odoacer in 
three engagements (on the Isonzo, the Adige, and the Adda). 
Odoacer, after sustaining a siege for three years in the 
strongly- fortified city of Ravenna, surrendered, and was 
put to death with his family and followers, in 493. 

II. Empire of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 490 — B 
554. 

Theodoric the Great (490 — 526) was recognized as king 29 
of Italy by Anastasius, the successor of Zeno. This sove- 
reign not only strengthened his newly-established throne by 
wise laws and institutions, but extended his empire beyond 
the boundaries of Italy, over the countries between the 
Alps and the Danube, as well as Illyricum, and finally over 
Provence. Imperial residence — Ravenna, and sometimes 
Verona or Bern (hence his German name of Dietrich of 
Bern). Prosperity of Italy, in consequence of his toleration c 
of the Catholics ; encouragement of agriculture and com- 



14 THE MIDDLE AGES. [30. § 8. 

(29) merce ; embellishment of the cities, drainage, and cultiva- 

A tion of the Pontine marshes, &c. He succeeded, also, in 
maintaining peace among the German princes, most of 
whom were his relations. His brother-in-law, Chlodwig 
(Clovis), king of the Franks, the only sovereign who offered 
resistance, was compelled to lay down his arms. The Visi- 
gothic throne was secured to Amalaric, a minor, the grand- 
son of Theodoric, who undertook the office of guardian. 
Theodoric died in 526, of remorse, it is said, on account of 
the (perhaps) unjust execution of the learned senator Boe- 
thius (who was suspected of having negotiated with the 

B eastern emperor, Justinian, for the liberation of Italy from 
the Goths), and his father-in-law, Symmachus. Theodoric 
was succeeded by his daughter, Amalasuntha, who govern- 
ed in the name of her son, Athalaric, a minor, and, after 
his untimely death, shared the throne with her cousin, The- 
odotus, by whom she was murdered. Under pretence of 
avenging her death, Justinian revived those claims to the 
sovereignty of Italy which had never been entirely aban- 
doned by the eastern court. Hence arose the eighteen 
years' war. The Byzantine general, Belisarius, soon made 
himself master of Sicily and Italy ; but these advantages 
were lost, in consequence of his being twice recalled, the 

c Goths, under their leader Totila, reconquering the terri- 
tory which had been wrested from them. Germans (Heru- 
lians and Langobardi) now fought as mercenaries against 
Germans, under Narses, who was victorious at Taginse, in 
Etruria, where Totilas was slain. In this war Rome was 
taken for the fifth time ; and the heroic king, Tejas, found, 
like his brave predecessor, Totila, a soldier's grave on the 
field of battle. A portion of the Goths capitulated, on con- 
dition of being permitted to depart in peace ; whilst the 
remainder, who had invited two German princes to enter 
Italy at the head of the Franks and Alemanni, were over- 
thrown, together with their allies, by Narses in 554, and 

D compelled to submit to the conqueror. Italy became a 

province of the eastern empire, and was governed by 

exarchs resident at Ravenna, of whom Narses was the first. 

III. Byzantine dominion in Italy. 

In the year 568 the Langobardi entered Italy, and, after 

30 a succession of battles, compelled the Romans to relinquish 

their sovereignty over the whole of Italy, (which they had 



31. §8.] EMPIRES IN ITALY. 15 

exercised for fourteen years), and confine themselves to the (30) 
territories strictly comprehended within their exarchate, — A 
Rome, Naples, and southern Italy, to which was added the 
name of Calabria, although they had lost that province. 

IV. Empire of the Langobardi. 568 — 774. 

On their return from Italy, the Langobardi, who had 31 
assisted Narses against the Ostrogoths, overthrew (under 
the command of their king Alboin, and with the aid of the 
Avari) the empire of the Gepidse, whose name, from this 
time, merges in those of the neighboring tribes. Leaving 
Pannonia to the Avari, the Langobardi returned to Italy, 
by the invitation, as they pretended, of the disgraced gene- 
ral, Narses, and with the aid of 20,000 Saxons, and some 
other hordes, wrested from the Byzantines the whole of 
Upper Italy, which thenceforward was named from them, 
Lombardy. Pavia, after a siege of three years, surrendered b 
to the conquerors, and was made the capital of their king- 
dom. After the assassination of Alboin (at the instigation 
of his wife Rosamond), the empire was extended south- 
wards by his successor, Kleph, so as to comprehend almost 
the whole of Italy, with the exception of a few strips of 
land on the coast. The southern division formed the duchy 
of Benevento. Kleph having been also assassinated, an 
interregnum of ten years succeeded, during which the 
country was governed by thirty-six dukes, among whom 
the most powerful were those of Friuli and Benevento. At c 
the end of this period it was found necessary to restore the 
office of king, and Anthari, the son of Kleph, was raised to 
the throne. The wife of this sovereign, a Bavarian Ca- 
tholic named Theodolinda, commenced the conversion of 
the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith. Under suc- 
ceeding kings, the eastern and western coasts of northern 
Italy fell into the hands of the Langobardi, who confined 
the exarchate within the limits of Calabria and the district 
around Naples, and even laid claim to the sovereignty of 
Rome and its territory. In his terror at this demonstration, d 
Pope Stephen III. applied for aid to Pepin the Short [Pepin 
le Bref ], king of the Franks, whom he had himself anointed. 
After two campaigns in Italy, Pepin compelled the Lango- 
bardi to cede to the Pope that portion of the coast of the 
Adriatic which had most recently fallen into their hands, 
and thus laid the foundation of his temporal power. The 



16 THE MIDDLE AGES [32, 33. § 9. 

(31) interference of the Franks in disputes between the Pope and 

A the Lombards, occasioned the incorporation of the Lango- 

bardic empire into that of the Franks, in the year 774. 

§ 9. Empire of the Vandals in Africa, 429 — 534. 

•32 Extent of the empire, a. In Africa : the whole 
northern line of coast, from the Atlantic Ocean to Cyre- 
naica, comprehending the ancient Roman provinces of 
Mauritania, Numidia, Africa Propria, and the district of the 
Syrtes. b. Out of Africa : the islands of Sardinia and 
Corsica, the Balearic and Pityusian islands, and Sicily (at 
first the whole island, but subsequently [493] only the 
north-western part). 
33 History. For the establishment of the empire by Gei- 

B seric, see § 5. The Roman emperor, Valentinian III., 
having fallen by the hand of Maximus, his widow, Eudoxia, 
who had been compelled to marry the assassin, implores 
the assistance of Geiseric, who lands on the coast of Italy, 
and plunders Rome for fourteen days, in the year 455. 
Maximus is slain ; Eudoxia, with her treasures and a crowd 
of prisoners, conveyed to Carthage ; and all the Italian 
islands ceded to the conqueror. In order to clear the 
Mediterranean of Vandal pirates, a fleet of 1113 sail is 
equipped, by the united exertions of the two emperors, 

c and despatched to Carthage. This fleet is attacked in the 
night by Geiseric, and the ships partly destroyed and partly 
dispersed (468). The decline of the Vandal empire, which 
commenced with the death of its founder, was accelerated 
by the frequent attacks of the Barbary tribes, and the per- 
secution carried on against the Catholics, of which Geiseric, 
himself an Arian, had set the example. Availing himself 
of this position of affairs, Justinian, the Byzantine emperor, 
despatched a fleet to the coast of Africa, under the com- 
mand of his general, Belisarius, who found the throne occu- 
pied by Gelimer, the last of the Vandal kings, and suc- 

D cessor of the deposed sovereign, Hilderic. After an en- 
gagement, in which the Vandals were defeated, Carthage 
surrendered, without offering any resistance ; and soon 
afterwards the whole Vandal army was routed, and their 
country entirely subdued (534). Gelimer, after gracing 
the triumphal entry of Belisarius into Constantinople, re- 



34 — 36. §10, 11.] THE STJEVI THE "WESTERN GOTHS. 17 

ceived an allotment of land in Asia Minor; the bravest of (33) 
ithe Vandals were enrolled in the Roman cavalry, and the A 
remainder absorbed into the mass of African tributaries. 



§ 10. Empire of the Suevi in Spain, 409 — 585. 

The whole of Bcetica, together with the Carthaginian pro- 34 
vince, had been occupied since the departure of the Van- 
dals by the Suevi, who had settled in Galicia on their first 
arrival in Spain. Their first Christian (Catholic) sove- 
reign, Rechiar, was attacked in consequence of his frequent 
inroads into the Roman province Tarraconensis, by The- 
odoric II., king of the Visigoths, defeated at Paramo, on 
the river Obrego, and executed. The empire of the Suevi B 
seemed now at an end ; but the remnant of the nation 
having assembled in a remote corner of Galicia, a new 
king was chosen, and their former piratical practices re- 
sumed. This independent Suevic kingdom, being distracted 
by political struggles, was finally incorporated into the 
Visigothic empire, in the year 585. 

§ 11. Empire of the Visigoths, 419 — 712. 

Extent of the empire, a. In Gaul. At first (419), 35 
Aquitania Secunda ; subsequently (439), the whole country c 
bordering on the Mediterranean, from the Rhone to the 
Pyrenees, at a later period styled exclusively Septimania; 
from the time of Euric (475), the country between the 
Rhone, the Loire, and the Ocean. After the battle of Vougle 
(507), only the extreme southern part of their Gallic em- 
pire remained in the hands of the Visigoths ; and even 
of this a portion was wrested from them by the Franks, in 
531. b. In Spain. At first only the country between the d 
Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, and the Ebro ; from the time 
of Euric, the whole of Spain, with the exception of the 
Suevic kingdom and the territory of the Vasci in the north; 
from the time of Leuwigild, the whole of Spain, with the 
exception, at first, of some maritime cities in the south, and 
a part of the northern district ; at a later period, Ceuta, in 
Africa, with its territory. 

History. Wallia, the founder of the Visigothic 36 
empire (see § 5), was succeeded by Theodoric I., who 



18 THE MIDDLE AGES. [37, 38. §11. 

(36) defeated a Roman army, extended his empire as far as the 
A Rhone, and fell in the battle of the Catalaunian fields. 
Theodoric II. subdued the greater part of the Suevic 
empire. His successor, Euric, extended his empire in 
Gaul to the Rhone, the Loire, and the Ocean ; expelled the 
Romans from Spain, and compiled a catalogue of the legal 
usages of the Goths. His violent persecution of the Catho- 
lics compelled them to form an alliance with the half-con- 
verted Frankish king, Chlodwig [Clovis], who, under pre- 
tence of rooting out the Arian heresy, attacked Alaric II., 
son and successor of Euric, slew him with his own hand in 
the battle of Vougle, near Poitiers (507), and stripped 
the Visigoths of all their possessions in Gaul, except a 
B portion of Septimania. During the minority of his son and 
successor, Amalric, the Visigothic empire was united, for 
fourteen years, to his own dominions, by Theodoric, king 
of the Ostrogoths. After the death of Amalric, who was 
slain during a war occasioned by his ill-treatment of his 
wife, Clotilda, a daughter of Chlodwig, the imperial resi- 
dence was transferred to Toledo, in 531. 

37 The Visigothic empire was still surther circumscribed 
by the Byzantines, who invaded the country on the invita- 
tion of Athanagild (an insurgent, and subsequently king), 

c and conquered the whole southern line of coast. For this 
loss they were in some measure indemnified by the sub- 
jugation of the rebellious Cantabrians and Vasci, and the 
conquest of the Suevic empire, by Leuwigild, who also 
compelled the Byzantines to restore several of the cities 
which they had taken. 

38 After the establishment of a natural boundary-line, by 
the expulsion of the Greeks from Spain (624), the attention 
of the Visigothic kings was directed rather to the consolida- 
tion of their own power, than the extension of their terri- 

D tories. The only foreign conquest during this period was 
a portion of Mauritania. Notwithstanding the amalga- 
mation of the Visigoths and Romans, in consequence of 
intermarriages, the adoption of the Catholic religion by the 
former, and the establishment of a common code of laws, 
the succession to the throne occasioned perpetual disputes, 
for the settlement of which the Arabians were at last in- 
vited over from Africa. On receiving this invitation, Musa 
immediately despatched an army into Spain, under the 



39, 40. § 12, 13.] THE BURGUNDIANS. 19 

command of his lieutenant, Tarek, who overthrew Roderic, (38) 
the last of the Visigothic kings, at Xeres de la Fron-A 
tera, after a struggle which lasted nine days (711). Musa 
soon afterwards followed his lieutenant into Spain, and the 
greater part of the Peninsula was already in their hands, 
when the two generals were suddenly recalled by a com- 
mand of their caliph. After their departure, the Pyrenaean 
Peninsula was divided into — 1. Arabian Spain, governed 
by lieutenants of the caliphs of Bagdad, until the establish- 
ment (756) of an independent kingdom at Cordova, by 
Abderrahman, the last Ommaijade. 2. The Christian 
kingdom of Asturia, where a remnant of the beaten Visi- 
goths maintained themselves against the Arabians. 

§ 12. Empire of the Burgundians in Gaul, 407 — 533. 

The Burgundians (probably the people named by Taci- 39 
tus, Burii) first appeared in the first century, in the neigh- B 
bourhood of the Vistula. They seem to have been a 
branch of the great Suevic stock. The loss of a battle 
against the Gepidas (about 250) having compelled them to 
retire westward, they settled on the Upper Rhine, in the 
neighbourhood of the Alemanni ; and, at a later period, 
received allotments of land from the Romans in Germania 
Superior (Alsace). Thence they spread southwards, over 
parts of Helvetia, Savoy, Dauphine, Lyonnois, and Franche- 
Compte. At the head of the nation was a high-priest, who c 
held his office for life (Sinist). Their kings (Hendinos), 
who resided sometimes at Geneva and sometimes at Lyons, 
were set aside for failure in war, or on account of per- 
sonal deformity. Disputed successions occasioned the 
introduction of Frankish kings (of Paris, Soissons, and 
Metz), who conquered the kingdom and divided it 
among themselves in the year 533 (?). The Burgun- d 
dians were compelled to pay tribute and render military 
service to the conqueror, but retained their own laws and 
customs. 

§ 13. Empire of the Franks under the Merovingians. 

Since the middle of the first century, bands of Frankish 40 
warriors had been accustomed to cross the Rhine ; at first 



20 THE MIDDLE AGES. [40. § 13. 

(40) for the mere purpose of plunder, and subsequently in the 

A hope of obtaining settlements ; which they acquired partly 
by force of arms and partly as rewards for their services in 
the Roman army. These Frankish settlers in Gaul arei 
divided into two principal branches: the S alii, between 
the Scheld and Meuse; and Ripuarii, probably between 
the Meuse, Moselle, and Rhine. Their clans lived indepen- 
dently of one another, each under its own chief, until the 
time of Chlodwig [Clovis], the grandson of Merovseus, 
or Merwig, who succeeded his father as king of the Franks 

B in 481. This monarch put an end to the Roman supremacy 
in Gaul by the overthrow of their governor, Syagrius, at 
Soissons, in 486 ; and, in conjunction with the Frankish 
king, Siegbert, who resided at Cologne (?), subdued a por- 
tion of the Alemanni (probably only those who dwelt on 
the left bank of the Rhine, between the Moselle and Alsace) 
in a battle fought (perhaps) near Tolbiacum or Zulpich. 
Having embraced the Catholic religion, in fulfilment of a 
vow made during the battle, Chlodwig caused himself to 
be anointed and crowned king of the Franks by Remigius, 

c bishop of Rheims. After subduing the Armorici in Brittany, 
he marched against his southern neighbours, the Burgun- 
dians and Visigoths ; who were reduced to the condition 
of tributaries, after sustaining a defeat at Dijon in 500, 
but speedily recovered their independence. Under pre- 
tence of expelling the Arian heretics from Gaul, Chlodwig 
again attacked them, and after obtaining a decisive victory 
at Vougle, on the Vienne, near Poictiers, where he slew 
their king, Alaric II., with his own hand (507), deprived 
them of all their possessions in Gaul, except the southern 
portion. After this war Chlodwig transferred his residence 

d to Paris. All the Frankish clans were at length united into 
one kingdom, their petty sovereigns (Siegbert of Cologne, 
Chararich of Belgium, and Ragnachar of Cambrai) having 
been previously removed by assassination. After the death 
of Chlodwig, in 511, the empire was divided among his 
four sons, Dietrich [Thierry], Clodomer, Childebert, and 
Clotar [Clothaire], who fixed their respective residences at 
Metz, Orleans, Paris, and Soissons. The king of Metz over- 
threw the Thuringian and Burgundian empires about the 
year 533, and shared the Burgundian territory with the kino-s 
of Paris and Soissons, who had assisted him in its conquest. 



11 44. § 13.] THE MEROVINGIANS. 21 

The empire of the Franks was still further enlarged when (40) 
the Ostrogoths, in order to prevent the formation of an A 
alliance between the Franks and Byzantines, ceded to the 
[former the Ostrogothic territories in Gaul (Provence) and 
.the Alemannic settlements in Rhcetia. The Bavarians, 
jalso, were incorporated into the empire, retaining their 
,own duke. 

The empire of the Franks was reunited under Clotar I. 41 
[Clothaire], the youngest of Chlodwig's sons, who survived 
all his brothers and their descendants. After his death 
the monarchy, which had been consolidated for three years 
(558 — 561), was again divided into four kingdoms, by 
his four sons, an arrangement which remained until the 
death of Charibert, king of Paris, in 569, when the number 
was reduced to three : viz. 

a. Austrasia, or the eastern empire, comprehending b 
the north-eastern portion of Gaul, with parts of southern 
Gaul ; and, in Germany, the territory of the Franconians, 
Thuringia, and the duchies of Bavaria and Alemannia, 
or Swabia. Capital — Metz. 

b. N e u s t r i a, or the western empire, also Soissons, com- 
prising the whole of north-western Gaul, from the Waal to 
the Loire, and a part of Aquitania. Capital — Soissons. 

c. Burgundy, or the southern empire, containing be- c 
sides the ancient Burgundian territory, the former kingdom 
of Orleans (as well as Sundgau, Alsace, Thurgau, and 
parts .of Aquitania and Provence). Capital — Orleans. 

Paris continued to be the common capital of the three 42 
kingdoms. 

The history of Clotar's [Clothaire's] successors is a cata- 43 
logue of intestine disturbances, treasons, and murders, occa- 
sioned principally by the rivalry of the two queens Brune- 
hilde (who murdered ten kings and princes of the blood 
royal) and Fredegunde. The empire was a second time 
united by Clotar [Clothaire] II. in 613. 

The Frankish empire under the administra-D 
tion of the majores domus, 613 — 752. 

In the reign of Clotar [Clothaire] II. we firsthear of three 44 
majores domus, i. e. heads of the royal household (gasindi) ; 
who acted also as chief stewards of the royal demesnes and 
fiefs (see § 14) ; viz. one in Austrasia, one in Neustria, and 
one in Burgundy. The major domus of Austrasia, Pepin of 



22 THE MIDDLE AGES. [45. § 14. 

(44) Landen, of a distinguished house in Luttich, or Liege, in- : 
A duced Clotar II. to cede Austrasia (in 622) to his elder I 
son, Dagobert, who, after the death of his father and his 
younger brothers, united the Frankish monarchy 
for the third time (631). Pepin became major domus, 
of the whole empire, from which, however, the Austrasians| 
soon afterwards separated themselves, under Dagobert I.! 
As few of his successors attained the age, and none pos-| 
sessed the vigour, of manhood, the sceptre of the Frankish j 
monarchy was in reality wielded by their majores domus. i 
One of these officers, named Pepin of Heristal, al 
grandson of Pepin of Landen, after his victory at Testrhi 
in 687, became sole major domus of France, with the title 
B of duke and prince of the Franks. After his death, in 714,1 
the succession to the office was disputed among his sons for 
ten years, and finally decided in favour of C h a r 1 e s Mar-' 
tel, who reduced the rebellious dukes of the tributary) 
nations Alemannia, Bavaria, and Thuringia, defeated thet 
Arabians (who had invaded France) between Tours andi 
Poictiers,in 732, and subdued the Frieses and a portion 
of the Saxons. His sons Carloman and Pepin the Short 
[Pepin le Bref] held the office conjointly, until the retire-: 
ment of Carloman into a convent (Monte Cassino), whenr 
c the entire administration of the kingdom devolved onr 
Pepin. Having secured the respect of the nobles and 
people by his bravery in the Saxon and Bavarian wars,; 
and conciliated the clergy by the support which he afforded: 
to Archbishop Bonifacius, in his plans for the reformation 
of the Church, Pepin, with the consent of Pope Zacharias,; 
summoned a general assembly of the empire, which met at 
Soissons, and deposed the incapable king, Childeric III., 
who retired into a convent. Pepin was then chosen king of 
the Franks, and anointed by Bonifacius in the year 752. 

§ 14. Religion, Manners, and Customs of the West, par- 
ticularly of the Frankish Empire. 

1. Religion. 

45 a. Introduction of Christianity. It is worthy of remark, 

d that Arianism was adopted only by those German tribes 

who had previously been worshippers of Odin, — the East 

and West Goths, Vandals, and Lombards ; whilst, on the 



46. § 14.] RELIGION, ETC., OF THE WEST. 23 

other hand, no trace can be found of such a worship among (45) 
the disciples of Catholicism, — the Frieses, Franks, Ale- A 
manni, Thuringians, Burgundians, and Suevi. At a later 
period, the West Goths [or Visigoths] and Lombards were 
persuaded by their kings to renounce Arianism, and embrace 
the Catholic faith. At the commencement of this period the 
Germans were still heathens, and their religion nearly the 
same as that described by Tacitus. (Comp. § 2.) It would 
seem, however, that the pure adoration of nature which they 
originally professed, degenerated, after a time, into idolatry 
(e. g. the Irminsul), in consequence of their intercourse 
with civilized nations ; and eventually into a sort of Fetish 
worship. Although Chlodwig and his followers embraced B 
Christianity after their victory over the Alemanni, an ex- 
ample which was gradually followed by the remainder of 
the Frankish nation, no attempt was made either by that 
monarch or his immediate successors, to convert their tri- 
butaries in Germany, — the Alemanni, Bavarians, and Thu- 
ringians. The Burgundians, soon after their settlement in 
Gaul, embraced the Catholic religion. In the rejgn of 
Dagobert I., some efforts were made by the Frankish 
bishops for the propagation of the Gospel ; but the work 
was still more effectually performed by missionaries from 
Ireland. The Alemanni were converted by Columban and c 
his disciple, Gallus, and some attempts were made by 
Kilian in Thuringia ; but the conversion of the Germans is 
principally due to Winfried [Winifred] of Wessex, after- 
wards called Bonifacius, and the " Apostle of Germany " 
(717 — 754), who preached to the Frieses and Catti, or Hes- 
sians (destruction of the sacred oak at Geismar), founded 
churches, convents and schools; established new bishoprics, 
which were immediately subject to the see of Rome ; held 
the first synods in Germany ; and after filling the office of 
bishop (723) and archbishop (732) without any settled dio- 
cese, was finally appointed archbishop of Mainz [Mayence] 
(745), and suffered martyrdom among the Frieses in 754. 

b. The Monastic Life, considered independently of those 46 
ascetic institutions (the Pythagorean obligation, the Essenes, d 
&c), which existed previously to the Christian sera, seems 
to have originated with those holy men who were com- 
pelled to lead secluded lives by the persecutions to which 
they were exposed as professors of Christianity. A con- 



24 THE MIDDLE AGES. [47, 48. § 14. 

(46) siderable number of these solitaries (monachi), who had 
A taken refuge in the Egyptian desert, established themselves 
in huts round the dwelling of St. Anthony (about 305), 
whose disciple, Pachomius, assembled them on the island 
Tabenna, in the Nile, within the walls of a single building, 
denominated Ccenobium, or Monasterium, under the pre- 
sidency of a chief (abbas, hence the term " abbot "). From 
Egypt these Coenobites rapidly spread over the neighbour- 
ing districts, as well as over Europe. In the west a new 
form was given to this institution by St. Benedict, of 
Nursia (480 — 543). His "rule," framed originally for 
the convent (claustrum) founded by him on Monte Cassino, 
near Naples, was gradually adopted in all the western 
B monasteries. It required that all who entered a monastery 
should, at the expiration of their novitiate, solemnly pro- 
mise to pass the remainder of their lives in the convent, 
and take the threefold vow of poverty, chastity, and obedi- 
ence. From the sixth to the ninth century, the cultivation 
of the soil, and the introduction of Christianity among the 
German and Sclavonic tribes, made rapid progress, in con- 
sequence of the activity and intelligence of the monks. 

47 c. Relation of the Church to the State. As the king was 
considered the protector of the Church within his own do- 
minions, and the emperor its supreme defender, it followed, 
of course, that the excommunication of the Church and the 

c ban of the empire were inseparable. The most capricious 
inroads on the privileges of the Church were made by the 
emperor and kings ; in the collation, for instance, to epis- 
copal sees, which the king or queen sometimes bestowed 
even on laymen ; and in the confirmation, by the eastern 
emperor, of the pope's election. The jurisdiction conceded 
to the bishops, which at first had been restricted to eccle- 
siastical causes, extended itself gradually to all matters in 
which the duties of religion or of conscience were involved. 
The heaviest ecclesiastical punishment was excommuni- 
cation. 

48 2. Political constitution. 

D Origin and Development of the German States. — The 
warlike enterprises of the ancient German nations were of 
two sorts: 1. Those in which all the freemen capable of 
bearing arms served under the command of a duke chosen 
from one of the principal families. These were, generally 



48, 49. § 14.] GERMAN STATES. 25 

speaking, defensive wars. 2. Expeditions or forays, under- (48) 
taken by an army composed of vassals (Gasindi, Leudes), A 
for purposes of plunder and conquest. Their leader was 
either the proposer of the expedition, or a warrior chosen 
for the occasion. A third of the land belonging to the 
countries which they conquered was claimed by the con- 
querors (e. g. Odoacer and Theodoric the Great), or some- 
times two-thirds (theBurgundians, Suevi, West Goths, and 
possibly Vandals), but rarely the whole (the Langobardi 
and Anglo-Saxons). The conqueror established a settle- 
ment in the conquered country. The leader retained his 
office as lord or captain of his followers, even after the 
conquest was completed ; and after his death his nearest 
relation was elected to fill the vacant throne. Thus the B 
German monarchies were at once hereditary and elective. 
The election was followed by the elevation of the success- 
ful candidate on a shield. The king always appeared in 
public surrounded by the chiefs who composed the nobility 
of his kingdom. This order comprehended, a. The dukes 
and counts, or leaders of the divisions and sub-divisions of 
the clansmen, who, as the king's lieutenants, exercised the 
functions of commanders and judges, and were at the 
same time invested with the four offices which existed at 
every German court, viz. : Marshall, Chamberlain, Butler, 
and Sewer, b. After the introduction of Christianity the c 
order included also the superior clergy, namely, the Ab- 
bots, Bishops, and Archbishops. The power of the kings 
consisted in their prerogative of calling out the. army and 
of pronouncing judgment on offenders. Their depend- 
ence in some sort on the Roman Emperors, in whose 
service many of them had fought their way to the throne, 
was manifested by the eagerness with which some of them 
(Chlodwig, Theodoric the Great) sought the title of Ro- 
man Patricius or Consul ; and by the fact that they gene- 
rally considered themselves, at least with reference to their 
Roman subjects, as the Emperor's lieutenants. The influ- D 
ence of Rome was also seen in the etiquette of their 
courts, as well as in their civic and provincial administra- 
tion, and the retention of the Roman code for the clergy 
and the Roman population. 

b. The feudal system. The territory obtained by 
conquest was divided by the king among his followers 
2 



26 THE MIDDLE AGES. [50. § 14. 

(49) (Gasindi), each receiving an allotment termed Allodium, 
A as an hereditary freehold which he was permitted to 
sub-divide at his pleasure. In this division, the king him- 
self received a larger allotment than the members of his 
suite, and was therefore in a condition to confer on some of 
his faithful followers (Vassen or Vassals), leasehold estates 
(termed fiefs, allodia, or beneficia), tenable for life, on 
condition of their swearing fidelity to the sovereign and 
engaging to render military service when called on. Thus 
the whole body of allodial proprietors were gradually 
B reduced to the condition of vassals. The chief of these 
- vassals was the major domus (regise), who, as the king's 
first lieutenant, led the serfs to battle, disposed of the 
royal patronage, and sometimes (in Austrasia), represented 
the king on the judgment-seat, in the place of the Comes 
Palatii, who was subject to his authority. At first, the 
fiefs were not hereditary, but this privilege was gradually 
either granted by the kings or usurped by the vassals. 
As the feudal lord was bound to protect his vassals, many 
of the small propriety's, conscious of their own weakness, 
made over their allodes to some powerful neighbor, from 
whom they received them back as fiefs ( feud um oblatum). 
Thus many of the allodes were converted into feudal 
c estates. At the same time their military system under- 
went a revolution correspondent to the political changes 
which had been effected among the Franks, Anglo-Saxons, 
Lombards, and many other Germanic tribes. The army 
was now composed partly of independent inhabitants of 
separate Gaus, under the command of their Count, and 
partly of vassals under their feudal Lords. The former 
were called out, by a decree of the people, to defend the 
lands in their own immediate neighborhood — the latter 
served in campaigns of every description in obedience to 
the sovereign's command. Among the Franks, the army 
was annually reviewed in the Field of Mars. 
50 c. Legislation. Until the middle of the fifth century 
D the German tribes possessed only unwritten laws ; in the 
three next centuries, written leges were introduced amongst 
the united nations of the Frankish empire (Salii, Ripuarii, 
Alemanni, Bavarians, Burgundians, &c), as well as 
among the West Goths, Lombards, and Anglo-Saxons. 
All these codes, with the exception of the Anglo-Saxon, 



51. § 14.] MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 27 

were drawn up in Latin, and seem to have been the work (50) 
of deliberative councils, or the result of compacts made A 
between the king and his people. Among the Eastern - 
and Western Goths and Burgundians we find a statute book 
published by the king, and containing simply Roman laws 
(edictum Theodoricianum, breviarium Alaricianum, lex 
Romano Burgundionum). These statutes, especially the 
lex Salia, are almost exclusively penal. As a general rule 
none but serfs could be punished with death, or undergo 
corporal chastisement ; the freeman was allowed to com- 
pound for his violations of the law by the payment of a 
fine (compositio) ; if unable to discharge the penalty, he 
became the slave of the injured party. Even murder could B 
be expiated by the payment of a pecuniary compensation 
(reckoned in solidis or shillings) to the relations of the 
deceased. Their courts of justice were of three sorts. 
1. The Gau-Court; held by the Count, assisted bySchoffen, 
or jurymen chosen from the freemen. 2. Palatine courts, 
in which the lord of an exempt district (immunitas), assisted 
by his dependents, decided questions within the jurisdiction 
of his court. 3. Feudal courts, in which the feudal lord 
settled the disputes of his vassals, of whom a certain 
number acted as his assessors. There were four sorts of 
proof: — 1. Documentary (rare). 2. Witnesses. 3. Thee 
oath of the prosecutor and his consacramentales. 4. The 
Ordeal, which consisted of the trial by fire (red-hot iron, 
ploughshares, coals, logs of wood, gloves, &c), the trial 
by boiling or cold water, and the judicial combat, or duel 
between the accused and his accuser. 

III. Manners and Customs. 

The advantages which agriculture derived from the 51 
assiduous cultivation of their estates by the free proprietors, 
and subsequently by the monks, were in some degree neu- 
tralized by the manner in which the land was parcelled out 
into large farms, and by the general employment of bonds- 
men. The same circumstances and the absence of cities, d 
were also obstacles to the advancement of manufacturing 
industry: commercial enterprise was checked by numerous 
imposts and by the insecurity of the roads ; and lastly, 
Christianity, in consequence of the universal and deeply- 
rooted depravity and ferocity of manners, scarcely exer- 



28 THE MIDDLE AGES. [52 54. § 15. 

(51) cised any beneficial influence over the people until the 
A commencement of the succeeding period. 

52 IV. Scientific knowledge was almost exclusively 
in the hands of the secular clergy and monks. Their 
system of education comprised the seven liberal arts, 
as they were called, or the Trivium (i. e. the study of 
classical literature, rhetoric, and dialectics), and Quadri- 
vium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). 
The best educational establishments were in England, at 
Cambridge, York, and Canterbury, from which learned 
men were from time to time sent out to enlighten the 
neighboring continent. Among these the most remark- 

B able were the Venerable Bede, Boniface, and Alcuin. 
The literature of this period contains only works in the 
Latin language. The most important are Boethii conso- 
latio philosophise, the philosophical and historical writings 
of Cassiodorus, extracts by Jornandes from the history of 
the Goths by Cassiodorus, Frankish ecclesiastical history 
by Gregory of Tours, Spanish by Isidorus, and English 
by the Venerable Bede, who introduced the Christian mode 
of reckoning time into the West. 
V. Art. 

53 The transition from the ancient to the modern style of 
c architecture, is seen in the old Gothic style among the Os- 
trogoths, and in the tasteless architecture of Lombardy, 
which was adopted, with a mixture of the Byzantine in 
all the other German states. First specimens of Christian 
painting. 

B. The East. 

§ 15. The Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire, 
395—867. 

54 Extent of the empire: Since the year 395, from 
D the Ionian (and at a later period from the Adriatic) Sea in 

the West, the Tigranocerta on the Tigris, Circesium on the 
Euphrates and the Arabian Desert in the East; and from 
the Danube and the Black Sea in the North, to Ethiopia 
and the Libyan Desert in the South. To this Empire was 
added the kingdom of the Vandals in 534, the whole of 
Italy in 554 — 568, and at a later period the Exarchate 



55. § 15.] HISTORY. 29 

(the limits of which became daily more restricted), and a (54) 
few cities on the southern coast of Spain. In the seventh a 
century the empire lost all its Asiatic possessions with the 
exception of Asia Minor ; in the seventh and eighth, 
Africa, the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, Dalmatia, and 
the right bank of the Lower Danube ; and in the ninth, 
Sicily, Candia, and Cyprus. Military division of the 
empire into twenty-nine Themata. 

History. 

1. Period of the rise of the empire — from the 
year 395 to the death of Justinian in 565. 

(1.) Arcadius (395 — 408), who had received for his 55 
portion the larger (eastern) half, at the division of the empire B 
by his father Theodosius (com. B. i. 3, § 111), was 
governed at the commencement of his reign by a Gaul 
named Ruffinus, then by the Eunuch Eutropius, at a later 
period by Gainas a Goth, and finally by his avaricious 
consort Eudoxia. The Huns, who had invaded the 
Asiatic provinces, were conciliated by the payment of a 
tribute, and Alaric, leader of the Western Goths, induced 
to withdraw his forces from Macedonia and Greece by a 
grant of the prefecture of Eastern Illyricum. (2.) His 
son and successor, Theodosius I. (under the guardianship 
of his sister Pulcheria), was twice compelled to increase 
the yearly payment to the Huns (the last time to 2100 
pounds of gold). On the other hand, when the Byzantines c 
and' Persians divided between them the kingdom of Arme- 
nia, Theodosius received the western part (and of the 
western empire, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum). The 
codex Theodosianus was the first published digest of laws. 
Theodosius was succeeded by (3.) Pulcheria and her para- 
mour Marcian, who, after the dissolution of the Hunnish 
empire, added to the southern Danube provinces several 
nations (e. g. the Eastern Goths), formerly subject to the 
Huns. (4.) Leo I. (Macella), the first emperor crowned d 
by the Patriarch of Constantinople, engaged unsuccessfully 
in an expedition against the Vandals (see § 9). The 
Ostrogothic Prince, Theodoric (who had been placed in 
his hands as the pledge of an alliance which he had 
purchased from that nation), was educated at Constan- 
tinople, and became the conqueror of Italy under the 
auspices of (5.) Zeno, the successor of Leo (comp. § 8). 



30 THE MIDDLE AGES. [56. § 15. 

(55) (6.) Anastasius, after the first invasion of the Bulgarians, 
a protected his capital by a long wall, which extended from 
the Black Sea to the sea of Marmora. (7.) Justin I., a 
Thracian peasant, was first appointed commander-in-chief 
of the body-guard, and then raised to the imperial throne, 
which he shared with his nephew. 
56 (8.) Justinian, 527 — 565, who became sole emperor 
at the end of four months. Theodora, the wife of this 
emperor, a woman of debauched character, who had 
formerly been an actress, exercised an influence which 
her profligate and cruel disposition rendered exceedingly 
injurious to the interests of the empire. His first and 
greatest work was the Improvement of the Roman 
Code by (a.) the Codex Justinianus (12 B.), a digest of 
Roman law, prepared by ten distinguished lawyers, under 
B the superintendence of Tribonian. This work was soon 
found defective, and at the end of six years there appeared 
a new and improved edition, b. The Institutiones, a 
manual of Roman law. c. The Pandectse, or Digesta, a 
collection of the most important interpretations and de- 
cisions, from the writings of forty distinguished jurists, 
d. The Novelise, or supplement, containing some laws of 
Justinian, and others of succeeding reigns. The tranquillity 
of the empire was disturbed by the N i k a, an insurrection 
in the Hippodrome at Constantinople, occasioned by the 
arrogance of the blue faction (which was favored by the 
emperor), and suppressed (in 532) by the butchery of 
c 30,000 of the green. The imperial palace, which had been 
injured, and the church of St. Sophia, which was burnt 
in this insurrection, were both restored in a style of 
greater magnificence. Having secured his northern frontier 
by a chain of more than, eighty fortresses, extending from 
the Save to the mouth of the Danube, and the eastern 
partly by entrenchments and alliances, and partly by 
putting an end (by a bought peace) to the Persian war,* 
which had broken out in the reign of Justin, Justinian un- 
D dertook the restoration of the Roman empire. In 
pursuance of this object the empire of the Vandals was de- 
stroyed by Belisarius ; and after a war, begun by that gen- 
eral and terminated by N arses at the end of eighteen years, 

* In this war, the Persian general, Narses, went over to the By- 
zantines, and Belisarius gained his first laurels. 



57. § 15.] HISTORY. 31 

the Ostrogothic empire, already weakened by intestine (56) 
divisions, became subject to Justinian. The conquests of A 
Belisarius in Africa and Italy, excited jealousy and appre- 
hension in the mind of the Persian kingChosroes (or Nushir- 
wan), who renewed the war (partly at the instigation of the 
Ostrogoths), invaded Syria, burnt Antiochia, and was 
threatening Palestine, when the appearance of Belisarius 
in the east compelled him to retreat. After long negotia- 
tions, which were interrupted by a dispute respecting the 
possession of the eastern shores of the Black Sea, peace 
was concluded, the ancient frontier line being restored, and 
Chosroes renouncing all claim to the disputed territories in 
consideration of an annual tribute. Conquest of the b 
southern coast of Spain (see § 11). The constant wars in 
this reign, terminated in some instances by a disgraceful 
peace, and the enormous sums expended in the erection of 
costly buildings, soon exhausted the exchequer which 
Anastasius had left full, and involved the empire in debt, 
notwithstanding the attempts made to meet the expenditure 
by the imposition of oppressive taxes, and the sale of 
public offices and government monopolies. 

II. Period of the decline of the empire from 
565 to the accession of the Macedonian Em- 
perors in 867. 

In the reign of Justinian's immediate successor (his 57 
nephew, Justin II.), began the conquests of the Lombards c 
in Italy (comp. § 8. IV.), and a renewal of the wars with 
Persia, which occupied almost without intermission the 
four succeeding emperors, the last of whom He radius 
(610 — 641), lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Asia Minor 
to the Persians, who were in the act of encamping under 
the walls of his capital, when the suburbs were plundered 
by the Avars, whose empire at that time extended from 
the Volga to the Saale and Ems — northward to the Car- 
pathian mountains, and southward to the Danube. In this D 
extremity, the emperor would have fled to Carthage, but 
at the intercession of the Patriarch he abandoned his inten- 
tion, landed with an army in Syria, and after three cam- 
paigns, and a victory at Nineveh (627), recovered the 
four countries which had been wrested- from him by the 
Persians. Soon afterwards, however, Syria, Palestine, 
Phoenicia, and Egypt, fell into the hands of the Ara- 



32 THE MIDDLE AGES. [57. § 15. 

(57) bians, and the southern coast of Spain into those of 

A the Visigoths. Under his successors the limits of the 
empire were still further circumscribed, in the west by 
the Lombards, who were continually enlarging their 
Italian dominions at the expense of the Exarchate (see 
§ 8. III.)? m the north by repeated invasions of the Bul- 
garians, who made themselves masters of Mcesia, and in 
the east and south by the Arabians. These last not only 
subdued the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, Armenia, the 
whole northern coast of Africa, and (in the ninth century) 
Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia, but even ventured to attack 
Constantinople itself, which they besieged every summer 
from 670 to 678, and again from 717 to 718, but were 

B each time repulsed by the Greek fire. Whilst the pro- 
vinces were thus falling, one after another, into the hands 
of the neighboring powers, the empire itself was convulsed 
by the disputes of political and religious parties. Succes- 
sive emperors were hurled from the throne, deprived of 
sight, maimed, shut up in convents, or put to death, some- 
times through the intrigues of ambitious consorts and their 
paramours, sometimes by their own sons, their ministers, 
or the victorious generals of their armies. The religious 
feuds were for the most part occasioned by dogmatic 
differences, such for example as (1.) The controversy re- 
specting the distinction between the divine and human 
natures of our Lord, pronounced to be an orthodox doctrine 

c by the council of Chalcedon, 451. This dispute not only 
occasioned the separation of the Monophysites from the Ca- 
tholic church, but was even productive of schisms among 
those heretics themselves. An attempt of the Emperor 
Heraclius to reconcile the contending dogmatists by a 
declaration that two natures were indeed united in tho 
person of our Lord, but that both had been actuated by 
only one will, served merely to augment the number of 
heresies by the addition of the Monotheletes, (2.) who were 
condemned by a council held at Constantinople in the year 

D 680. A remnant of these heretics formed the sect of the 
Maronites. (3.) The iconoclastic controversy, which 
lasted more than a hundred years, was occasioned by a 
decree of the Emperor Leo III. (Isauricus), commanding 
(in 726) the removal from the churches of all images, 
except that of our Saviour. Notwithstanding the vehe- 



58, 59. § 15.] history. 33 

ment opposition of the monks and the pope, this de- (57) 
cree was carried into effect, and the images either dashed a 
in pieces or burnt. The worship of images having been 
condemned as heretical by the seventh oecumenical council 
(held at Constantinople in 754), their destruction was 
carried on with augmented zeal by succeeding emperors 
until the reign of Irene, when it was interrupted for 
awhile, to be renewed in the following reign. Their 
restoration was at last effected by Theodora, the guardian 
of her son Michael III. The degradation of the Patri- b 
arch of Constantinople by this emperor, prepared the 
way for the separation of the Greek and Roman churches. 
He was assassinated on account of his acts of ferocious 
cruelty, by his favorite, Basilius the Macedonian, in the 
year 867. (4.) The persecution of the sect of the Pauli- 
cians, who eventually, with the aid of the Arabians, 
ravaged Asia Minor, and waged war successfully against 
Michael III. 

Political constitution, arts, sciences, &c. 

1. The constitution which the Roman empire had re- 58 
ceived from Constantine the Great (see B. i. 3. § 110), was 
preserved in its integrity, the emperors continuing to enjoy 
unlimited power. They were crowned and anointed by c 
the -Patriarch of Constantinople, assumed the title of 
Roman Emperors, and sought to conceal their real weak- 
ness by the adoption of sounding titles, a gorgeous costume, 
and* a rigid court ceremonial. The senate, it is true, still 
remained, but without authority or political influence ; the 
only deliberative council being the consistorium principis, 
an assembly composed entirely of imperial favorites, who 
were consulted from time to time as occasion required. 
In the reign of Justinian, the Roman consulship ceased to 
exist, even in name, the only dates now employed being 
the years of the emperor's reign, according to the Indiction- 
Cycle of fifteen years. Political importance of the colors d 
in the Hippodrome. The provinces were handed over to 
governors, who purchased their offices, and exercised 
almost irresponsible authority, to the great disgust of the 
oppressed and plundered provincials. 

2. Language and Literature. The language of the court, 59 
after its removal to Constantinople, continued for a time 

to be Latin, but was afterwards a corrupted Greek. 
2* 



34 THE MIDDLE AGES. [60,61. §15. 

(59) Poetry was confined almost entirely to the epigram. 
A Schools of the new Platonic philosophy, grammar, and 
rhetoric, flourished at Constantinople, at Athens, until the 
reign of Justinian, and at Edessa and Alexandria until the 
Arabian dynasty. The most renowned school of jurispru- 
dence was at Berytus in Phoenicia. Medicinal science was 
most successfully cultivated at Alexandria. The writings 
of the Byzantine historians were either chronicles from the 
creation of the world to their own times (as Syncellus), or 
biographies of individual emperors, for the most part mere 
compilations without plan, judgment, or taste. 

60 3. Art. The establishment of Christianity as the re- 
b ligion of the state, and the removal of the Roman court to 

Byzantium, gave new life to art, especially during the 
brilliant reign of Justinian. The distinguishing features 
of ancient Christian architecture, as seen in its greatest per- 
fection in the church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian, 
were the cruciform plan, and the dome resting on arches, 
supported by massive piles. 1 Simplicity of taste was 
almost lost amidst a profusion of marbles of the most 
varied and brilliant colors. All visible personifications of 
the Deity being forbidden by the Christian religion, the 
only works of sculpture were statues representing emperors, 
generals, and statesmen, in their gorgeous robes of office, 
c ornaments for the altar, and sacred vessels. The interior 
of the churches was generally ornamented with mosaic of 
the most brilliant colors, composed of gold and costly 
marbles. The earliest specimens of Christian sculpture 
and painting are found in the ninth century, when images 
of the saints were first permitted by the Greek church. 
The modern Greek or Byzantine style of architecture 
found its way into the west as far as Britain and the 
Moorish settlements in Spain, as well as into Arabia. A 
knowledge of painting was also generally diffused by the 
artists who were driven from the east by the iconoclastic 
controversy. 

61 4. Commerce and Manufactures. The operations of 
D commerce were sorely cramped by the almost perpetual 

wars, barbarian invasions, the insecurity of the roads, and 
oppressive taxation and monopolies. A direct trade was 

\} See Gibbon, chap. xl. § 5. J 



62, 63. § 16.] Arabia. 35 

carried on with the shores of the Mediterranean, which (61) 
had been reconquered by Justinian, and were for the most A 
part inhabited by rude and barbarous nations ; whilst, on 
the other hand, the trade with India was conducted through 
the intervention of the Persians, and at a later period of the 
Arabians. The situation of Constantinople rendered it the 
principal emporium for western as well as eastern produce. 
Manufacturing industry was fostered by the luxury of a 
brilliant court, and was greatly promoted by the introduc- 
tion of silkworms, the eggs of which were brought in 
hollow canes from China to Constantinople by missionaries 
in the reign of Justinian. 

5. Manners. — The demoralization of this luxurious 62 
court extended to the great body of the people, who gave B 
themselves up to coarse and sensual enjoyment in defiance 
alike of ecclesiastical censures, severe laws, and the most 
fearful punishments. 

§ 16. The Arabians. 
Geography of Arabia. 

The peninsula of Arabia, the superficial area of which 63 
is four times greater than that of Germany or France, c 
consists partly of a table-land traversed by ranges of moun- 
tains, entirely destitute of water, and forming a huge sea 
of shifting sands, and partly of narrow strips of fiat land 
along the sea-coast, all equally barren, with the exception 
of the south-western portion, which, on account of its 
fertility, was called by the ancients Arabia Felix (hod. 
Jemen). The inhabitants are partly "Bedouins, whose lives 
are spent in wandering, either in single families under their 
Scheiks, or in large clans under Emirs, in search of 
water and pasture, and partly inhabitants of cities (of which 
the most celebrated are Mecca and Medina), where they 
maintain themselves by agriculture, trade, and manufac- 
tures. Before the time of Mohammed, their religion was d 
a worship of the stars. Their national sanctuary, the 
Caaba or temple at Mecca (with its black stone, formerly 
venerated as divine), was superintended by the family 
of Haschem, of the tribe of Koreisch. Circumcision 
and abstinence from pork, as among the Jews and 
Egyptians. 



36 THE MIDDLE AGES. [64 66. § 16. 

History of the Arabians. 

64 The Arabians, who trace their origin to Ishmael, the son 
a of Abraham and Hagar, have always retained their inde- 
pendence, with the exception of the inhabitants of Arabia 
Petrsea, which for a short time (a.d. 106) was subject to 
the Romans. 

1. From Mohammed to the Dynasty of the 
Ommaijades, 622 — 661. 

65 Mohammed was born at Mecca in the year 571, and 
B after the death of his parents (who belonged to the power- 
ful tribe of Koreisch, and the family of Haschem), was 
brought up by an uncle (Abu-Taleb). By a fortunate 
marriage with a rich widow, he was enabled to gratify 
without restraint his taste for religious seclusion. One 
month of every year was passed in a cave in the neighbor- 
hood of Mecca, whence he sallied forth to proclaim himself 
the ambassador of the One God, by whom, as he declared, 
a commission had been granted him to restore the religion 

c of Abraham. This doctrine, which at first was preached 
(609) only to the members of his own family, but subse- 
quently promulgated to the world, was vehemently op- 
posed by the Koreischites, whose persecutions at length 
drove him, in company with Abu-Bekr, to seek an asylum 
in the city of Medina, July 15, 622. From this flight the 
Arabians date their era Hegira (Hedschra). From Me- 
dina, where he assumed the authority of king, and married 
the daughter of Abu-Bekr, Mohammed propagated the 
doctrines of Islamism by the sword. In the year 629, he 
took the holy city of Mecca, converted the Caaba into the 
national sanctuary of the true believers (Moslem), com- 
pleted the conquest of Arabia, and invited the king of 
Persia and the Byzantine emperor (Heraclius).to embrace 

D Islamism. He died at Medina, in 632, leaving behind 
him only one daughter, (Fatima), the wife of Ali. 
The four first caliphs, 632—661. 

66 1. Abu-Bekr (632— 34), the father-in-law of tne 
prophet, who collected the sayings of Mohammed into a 
book called the Koran. His general, Khaled, began a war 
with Persia, and the conquest of Syria. 



67—69. § 16.] Arabia. 37 

2. Omar (634 — 43), another father-in-law of the pro- 67 
phet. His generals took Damascus, completed the con- a 
quest of Syria, and made themselves masters of Palestine, 
which was visited by Omar himself (in very humble guise) 
for the purpose of concluding a capitulation with the 
Christians at Jerusalem, to whom he granted full toleration 
on condition of receiving a yearly tribute. The conquest of 
Phoenicia enabled the Arabians to take rank as a maritime 
power. The war with Persia was prosecuted successfully 
(victory at Cadesia in 636, and Nohavend in 642). At 
the same time, Amru subdued Egypt, after a war which 
lasted two years (narrative of the burning of the Alexan- 
drian library,' by order of Omar, probably incorrect), and 
advanced into Africa as far as Tripoli. 

3. Othman (643 — 56). A son-in-law of the prophet. 68 
The conquest of the Persian empire was completed in 651, b 
together with that of the whole of northern Africa, as far 

as Ceuta; Cypress was compelled to pay tribute, Rhodes 
taken, and the fragments of its famous Colossus sold. The 
discontent occasioned by the avarice and nepotism of 
Othman, produced an insurrection in Medina, which ended 
in his assassination and the accession of 

4. Ali (656 — 661), another son-in-law of the prophet 69 
(husband of Fatima), was placed on the throne by the 
assassins, but not generally recognized as Caliph, many 
persons believing that the murder of Othman had been 
perpetrated at his instigation. In order to strengthen his c 
authority, Ali confided the administration of the provinces 

to friends of his own ; an arrangement by no means ac- 
ceptable to the governors actually in possession, most of 
whom, (especially Moawijah, governor of Syria, who 
caused himself to be proclaimed Caliph, and Amru, gover- 
nor of Egypt), united to oppose the usurper. After several 
(90) insignificant but bloody engagements, a conspiracy 
was entered into by three Arabians, to restore tranquillity 
by the murder of Ali, Amru, and Moawijah — all of whom 
escaped the dagger of the assassin except Ali, whose son, 
Hassan, succeeded him on the throne, but was compelled 
to abdicate in favor of Moawijah. 

[ l Gibbon's reasoning upon this subject (ch. 51), seems conclusive. 
Some of his arguments had already been anticipated by the acute- 
ness of Voltaire (Esai sur les Moeurs), and are confirmed by the 
learned researches of Heeren, Geschichte der Classischen Literatur 
im Mittehalter.] 



38 THE MIDDLE AGES. [70. §16. 

2. The Ommaijad Caliphs 661—750. 

70 Moawijali I., great-grandson of Ommaija, transferred 

A the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus, and 
made the caliphate hereditary. Under the thirteen caliphs 
of this dynasty, the Arabian dominions were more extensive 
than at any other period of their history, a. Conquests in 
the West. The African subjects of the Arabians, being 
oppressed and compelled to pay tribute by the Byzantines 
(who still retained possession of Carthage), applied for aid 
to the Arabians, who stormed and sacked Carthage, ex- 
pelled the Byzantines from Africa, extended their domi- 
nions to the Atlantic, and strengthened their authority by 

B the conversion of the Barbary tribes to Islamism. From 
this province, Musa, on the invitation of a West-Gothic 
chief (Julian), despatched his lieutenant Tarek into Spain, 
where he overthrew the Goths, in a battle fought at Xerez 
de la Frontera (711), and had well-nigh completed the 
destruction of the West-Gothic empire, when Musa himself 
arrived in Spain, and threw the conqueror into a prison, 
where he was treated with great cruelty. Musa was on 
the eve of crossing the Pyrenees, when both generals were 
recalled by an order of the Caliph (Walid). After a long and 
triumphal march from Spain to Syria, the aged commander- 
in-chief was exposed to the heat of the sun, scourged, 

c and compelled to pay a heavy fine. Meanwhile, his son 
had been murdered in Spain, and his head forwarded to the 
unhappy father. The Christians in Spain were permitted, 
on payment of a moderate tribute, to retain their language, 
laws, and the free exercise of their religion. The attempt 
of the Spanish viceroy Abderrahman to wrest Gaul from 
the feeble hands of the Frankish kings, was frustrated by 
his defeat at Tours and Poitiers (comp. § 13). b. In the 
East, the Arabians subdued Armenia, a portion of Asia 
Minor, the countries between the Black and Caspian seas, 

D and Turkestan. Even in India they had acquired possessions, 
of no great extent, nor occupied for any considerable length 
of time, but sufficiently important to place in their hands the 
whole trade of that peninsula. Two attempts on Constanti- 
nople were rendered abortive by the Greek fire (see § 15). 
During the progress of these events, the reigning dynasty 
was engaged in perpetual struggles with the family of 
Haschem, and the adherents of Ali, as well as with the 



71, 72. § 16.] ARABIA. 39 

rival caliphs, who were placed on the throne by the two (70) 
contending parties. At length, on the accession (in 750) a 
of Abul Abbas, a great-grandson of Abbas, uncle of the 
prophet, the dynasty of the Ommaijades was swept away 
in a torrent of blood (600,000 of their adherents having 
been put to death in Khorassan alone), and the throne of 
the Abbassides firmly established. Abderrahman alone 
escaped into Spain, where he established the caliphate at 
Cordova (comp. § 11). 

Religion, arts, and sciences, &c. 

1. The creed of the Arabians, or Islamism, was con- 71 
sidered by its founder merely a restoration of the religion b 
of Abraham, which, as he contended, had been also pro- 
mulgated by Moses, and our Blessed Lord, but grievously , 
disfigured by their disciples. To Mohammed himself, as 
the last and greatest of the prophets, was intrusted the task 
of restoring this religion to its original purity. The Mo- 
hammedan system (Islam), is partly doctrinal (Iman), and 
partly practical (Din). Its principal articles of faith are, 
the unity of God, predestination, and retribution in the 
world to come. The moral law enjoins control over the c 
passions, war against unbelievers, prayer five times a day, 
repeated purifications with water or sand, almsgiving, fasts 
(during the month of Ramadan, daily, until sunset), absti- 
nence from wine, and a pilgrimage to the Caaba. It allows 
polygamy, and permits its followers to recompense evil 
for evil. The sacred writings of the Mohammedans are the 
Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospels, and the Koran, or 
collection of the prophet's sayings, preserved by Abu-Bekr, 
and arranged by Othman. This work was speedily fol- 
lowed by the Sunna, a collection of moral precepts, which 
many of the Mohammedans refused to recognize. Hence d 
the two sects of the Sunnites and Schiites. Conversion to 
Mohammedanism was produced not so much by argu- 
ment and conviction, as by the sword. All vanquished 
nations were compelled either to pay tribute or conform 

to the new religion ; and slaves, prisoners, and malefactors 
were restored to freedom on declaring their assent to the 
doctrines of the Koran. These circumstances will account 
for the rapidity with which the religion of the Arabian 
impostor was propagated. 

2. Political Constitution. The supreme ecclesiastical 72 



40 THE MIDDLE AGES. [73, 74. § 16. 

(72) as well as civil authority was vested in the caliphs. At 
A first they were required to render a weekly account of their 
administration to the people, who were consulted by them 
on all important occasions ; but at a later period (especially 
since the establishment of an hereditary caliphate by 
Moawijah) their power was completely despotic. The 
mode of life of the earliest caliphs was exceedingly simple 
(Omar's journey to Jerusalem), but they soon learnt to 
imitate the luxury of the conquered nations, whose trea- 
sures supplied them with the means of enjoyment. The 
lieutenants of the provinces were invested with military 
as well as civil authority. Hence their power, and at a 
later period the renunciation of their . allegiance to the 
caliphs. 

73 3. Arts and Sciences. As early as the fifth century 
B there were poetical contests at the fair of Mecca, and seven 

poems are still extant (the Moallakat), composed by authors 
whose names were inscribed in letters of gold on the walls 
of the Caaba. The warlike enthusiasm of the nation and 
the fierce eagerness with which the earlier caliphs pursued 
their plans of conquest, prevented the cultivation of science, 
properly so called, until the reign of the Abbasides, when 
the Arabian conquerors learnt to emulate the learning of 
the Greeks. The golden age of Arabian architecture 
began (about 700) with the erection of mosques at Jeru- 
c salem and Damascus. Painting and sculpture were out 
of the question among a people whose religion condemned 
every representation of the human form. 

74 4. Trade and Manufactures being recommended by the 
Koran as employments pleasing to God, were held in high 
estimation among the Arabians. The conquest of the 
Persian empire had placed in their hands the commerce of 
India. Westward their maritime trade extended over the 
whole of the Mediterranean as far as the Straits of Gibraltar; 
in the south, they founded the settlements along the whole 
eastern coast of Africa to the borders of CafFreland, and 
in the east they had a considerable factory at Canton in 

D China. The land traffic was carried on by means of cara- 
vans, which conveyed merchandise from Egypt into the 
interior of Africa on the one side, and on the other into 
Syria, and thence into central Asia. The principal markets 
for the products of the extreme west and east were, Me- 



75, 76. § 17.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 41 

dina, Mecca, Kufa, Bassora, Damascus, Bagdad, Mosul, (74) 
and Madam. Notwithstanding the perpetual wars, trade A 
and manufactures of every description continued to flourish, 
especially on the shores of Barbary and Spain. 

§ 17. The Modern Persian Empire, 226 — 651. 

The boundaries of the empire founded by Artaxerxes I. 75 
(Ardeschir), the son of Sassan (see B. i. 2, § 49), varied 
at different times. Under Chosroes I. it extended from the 
Mediterranean to the Indus, and from the Jaxartes to 
Arabia and Egypt, and under Chosroes II. to Jemen. The 
empire was divided into four provinces, viz. Assyria, 
Media, Persia, and Bactriana. The capital city was B 
Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, with the 
suburb of Seleucia on the opposite side, forming together 
Madain, or the "double city." 

The Persians were engaged in almost perpetual warfare 76 
either with the Turks or the eastern Roman empire (see 
§ 15). The most distinguished among the (25) Sassanides, 
next to the founder of the dynasty, was Chosroes I., sur- 
named Nushirvan, or the Just, a contemporary of Justinian, 
who terminated a war with the Byzantines, which had been 
inherited by his predecessor, but subsequently recom- 
menced hostilities in Syria at the instigation of the Ostro- 
goths. On the appearance, however, of Belisarius in the c 
east, he retraced his steps, and devoted all his energies to 
the Lazic war, at the conclusion of which he renounced his 
claims on Colchis, on condition of receiving an annual tri- 
bute. During the forty-eight years of his reign (531 — 79) 
the prosperity of the empire was promoted not so much by 
foreign conquests, as by the establishment of domestic 
order and tranquillity. The government of the four great D 
provinces was intrusted to four viziers, whose administra- 
tion was subjected to a rigid supervision ; an improved 
system of legislation, war, and finance was introduced; 
agricultural enterprise encouraged by protection and by 
the artificial irrigation of the soil, higher and elementary 
schools established, learned Greeks entertained at his 
court, and the most celebrated Greek and Indian authors 
translated into Persian. Destruction of the empire by 
the Arabians, see § 16. 



42 THE MIDDLE AGES. [77, 78. § 18. 

C. The North-East of Europe. 
§ 18. The Sclavonians. 

77 Until the beginning of the fifth century, the eastern 
A neighbors of Germany were denominated Wendes and 

Sarmatians. The last of these names was exchanged for 
that of Slaves or Sclavonians. Under Hermanric, these 
ti'ibes were incorporated into the Gothic empire, and under 
Attila, into that of the Huns, and after the dissolution of 
those kingdoms, remained possessors of the eastern portion 
of Germany (as far as the Elbe), which had been depopu- 
lated by the migration of the Germans. They were divided 
into the Baltic Wendes, who retained their independence 
B the longest. 2. The Sorbes in central Germany (between 
the Elbe and -the Saale), who were made tributary to the 
Franks. 3. The Slaves, in the more restricted significa- 
tion of the term, southwards from the Danube to Illyria, and 
westwards to Bavaria. The Slaves were delivered from 
the dominion of the Avars by their commander Samo, a 
Frank who had relapsed into heathenism. This general was 
recognized as king by most of the Slavish tribes, from 
Dalmatia to the Giant Mountains (Riesengebirge). After 
his death, the confederacy of the Slavish tribes was again 
dissolved, and new empires (e. g. those of the Croatians and 
Servians) arose from its ruins. The southern Slaves 
remained under the dominion of the Lombards. 

78 A certain similarity between the Slavish and Germanic 
c tribes appears not only in the vigorous structure of their 

bodies, but also to a certain extent in their religion (wor- 
ship of nature, without images), constitution (patriarchal), 
manner of life (avoidance of cities), and moral character, 
for example, in their hospitality, chastity, and fidelity to 
the marriage-bed. On the other hand, we find traces of 
physical and moral difference in the liveliness of the 
Slaves, their love of ornament and revelry, and the want 
of union among individual tribes under a common head ; in 
their practice of attacking from an ambuscade, their rapa- 
city after a victory, and the frequent cruelties practised 
towards their prisoners ; the burning of widows after the 
death of their husbands, the alacrity with which they 



79, 80. §19.] NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 43 

adopted the customs of neighboring nations (Romans, (78' 
Greeks, Germans) ; their commercial enterprise at an early a 
period of their history, the navigation of their rivers; and, 
in later times, their industrious cultivation of the soil which 
had been abandoned to their occupation by the Germans. 
The languages of the two nations exhibit some traces of a 
common origin, but the principles on which they are con- 
structed are totally dissimilar. 

§ 19. Other Nations in the East of Europe. 

1. The Avars, who had been compelled by the Turks 79 
to evacuate their settlements in the north of Circassia, b 
ascended the Danube, and after twice demanding in 
vain an allotment of land in the Eastern Roman empire, 
took possession of Dacia, overthrew the empire of the 
Gepidse, with the assistance of the Lombards, established 
themselves in Pannonia, which had been abandoned by their 
allies, and wrested Dalmatia from the Byzantines. Thus, 

in the year 600, their empire extended from the Volga to 
the Saale and Ems: but, in the following century, its limits 
were gradually circumscribed by the secession of neigh- 
boring states, — the Bulgarians declared themselves inde- 
pendent, Dalmatia was wrested from them by the Croatians 
and Servians, and the eastern portion of the empire fell 
into the hands of the Chazares. 

2. The Bulgarians. 

The Bulgarians, a Tartaric tribe, who had occupied 80 
from time immemorial the shores of the Volga and the Ural c 
mountains, ascended the Danube, and about the end of the 
fifth century made annual incursions into the Byzantine 
empire, laying waste the whole of the country from the 
Ionian Sea to the suburbs of Constantinople. Having 
effected a breach in the wall erected by Anastasius (see 
§ 15), for the defence of the Thracian Chersonese, they 
crossed the Hellespont, and returned laden with the spoils 
of Asia. The fortresses erected by Justinian on the Danube, 
opposed a barrier equally feeble to their destructive pro- 
gress. Their deliverance from the tyranny of the Avars, d 
to whom they had been tributary during a period of seventy 
years (562 — 635), was effected by one of their princes, 
named Kuvrat, who founded a mighty empire, which his 



44 THE MIDDLE AGES. [81, 82. § 20. 

(80) sons divided among themselves after his death, the third 
a receiving for his portion Bulgaria Proper, or the territory- 
lying between the Danube and the Hsemus. 
81 3. The Chaz ares (also a Tartaric tribe) were masters, 
in the seventh century, of the whole of Southern Russia, 
from the Volga to the Dnieper, and were engaged in almost 
perpetual warfare with the Persians, and the Romans of the 
eastern empire. The famous Caucasian wall was erected 
by Chosroes I., as a barrier against their invasions. 



Second Period. 

From the Accession of the Carlovingians and Abbasides to the first 
Crusade, 752—1096. 

A. The West. 

§ 20. The Frankish Empire under the Carlovingians. 

(752—888.) 

1. Pepin the Short (752—768) 

82 governed the three united kingdoms of 1 . Austrasia, which 
b comprehended Alemannia or Swabia, Bavaria, Thuringia, 
and a part of Friesland. 2. Neustria. 3. Burgundy with 
Provence and Septimania. War in Italy. The Ducatus 
Romanus having been threatened by the Lombards, Pope 
Stephen III. (II.), after an ineffectual attempt to obtain 
support from the eastern emperor, implored the aid of 
Pepin, whom he a second time crowned and anointed at 
St. Denys, with his two sons Charles and Carloman. The 
Franks were required thenceforward to choose their kings 
from the male descendants of Pepin, whom the Pope raised 
to the dignity of a Roman patrician, conferring on him at 
the same time the title of Protector of the Church, and 
enjoining him to undertake a crusade against the Lom- 
bards, for the purpose of securing the Exarchate for the 
c Holy See. In obedience to these injunctions, Pepin in- 
vaded Italy, and after two campaigns compelled the Lom- 
bard king (Aistulf), to surrender the whole line of 
Adriatic coast (from Commachio to Ancona), which he 
presented to the Roman Pontiff. Wars with neighboring 
nations. — The Frieses, who had assassinated St. Boniface, 



83 85. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 45 

were again subdued; theSaxons(aftertwocampaigns)com- (82) 
pelled to pay tribute; the Arabians (after the surrender of A 
Narbonne) expelled from Southern Gaul and Aquitania 
(after the death of Duke Waifar) re-united to the Frankish 
empire. 

2. Charlemagne (768 — 814), 

born in 742 (on the 2nd April ?), perhaps at Aachen, or 83 
Aix-la-Chapelle, during the first three years of his reign 
shared the throne with his brother Carloman, by whose 
sudden death, in 771, he became sole king of the Franks, 
to the exclusion of his two nephews, who fled with their 
mother to the Lombardic court. 
The wars of Charlemagne. 

a. Conquest of Lombardy, 774. In compliance with 84 
the wishes of his mother, Charlemagne had divorced his 
first wife, and married a daughter of Desiderius, king of 
the Lombards, whom he soon repudiated, and formed a third 
matrimonial alliance with Hildegarde, a daughter of the 
Duke of Swabia.. Desiderius, indignant at this treatment, b 
supported the sons of Carloman in their claims to the Frank- 
ish throne, and on the refusal of the Pope (Hadrian I.) to 
crown them, took possession of the patrimony of St. Peter. 
On receiving intelligence of this outrage, Charlemagne 
invaded Italy, besieged Desiderius in Pavia, and entering 
Rome, confirmed the grant of Pepin to the Holy See, the 
possessions of which were now augmented by the addition 

of Spoleto. Desiderius was taken prisoner by Charle- 
magne, who caused himself to be proclaimed king of the 
Lombards (or of Italy), in the year 774. An attempt of 
the Langobardic nobles to reinstate Desiderius on the throne, 
was frustrated by a second invasion of Italy. 

b. Wars with the Saxons, 772 — 804. The Saxon na- 85 
tion was divided into Westphalia between the Rhine and c 
Ems, Engern between the Ems and Weser, Eastphalia be- 
tween the Weser and Elbe, and Transalbingia beyond 
the Elbe. From the earliest times a feeling of hostility 
seems to have existed between the Saxon and Frankish 
races, and ever since the reign of Chlotar I., the Mero- 
vingians and their Saxon neighbors had been engaged 

in perpetual struggles, with no more important result than 
the subjugation of a few gaus by the Franks. With 



46 THE MIDDLE AGES. [86. §20. 

(85) equal obstinacy, the Saxons resisted the introduction of 

A Christianity into their country, putting the missionaries 
to death and demolishing the churches. At a diet held at 
Worms, in 772, it was resolved to attempt the subjugation 
and conversion of these obstinate Unbelievers. In the first 
campaign, Charlemagne stormed the Eresburg (hod. Stadt- 
berg on the Diemel), and destroyed the Irminsul, a statue 
to which divine honors were paid, but which does not 
seem to have been dedicated exclusively to any one god. 
After his first Italian campaign (and a diet at Duren, in 
775), Charlemagne marched against Wittekind and Alboin, 
who had invaded his kingdom at the head of a Saxon army, 
stormed their fortress of Sigiburg (at the confluence of the 
Ruhr and Lenne, and compelled them to give hostages. 
During his second campaign in Italy, and an expedition 
into Spain, the Saxons again advanced to Deutz on the 

B Rhine, but were driven back by Charlemagne, who sub- 
dued their country as far as the Elbe. Charlemagne now 
ventured to send detachments of Saxons with two Frankish 
armies against the Sorbes, who had invaded Thuringia, 
but his faithless allies turned their arms against their com- 
rades, an act of treachery which was punished by the 
execution of 4500 Saxons at Verden on the Aller. A 
general insurrection followed, and for three years the Saxons 
made head against their powerful enemy. At length, after 
two indecisive engagements (at Detmold and on the Hase), 
Wittekind and Alboin entered into negotiations with Char- 

c lemagne, and embraced Christianity, with most of their 
followers. No sooner, however, was Charlemagne occu- 
pied with the Bavarians and Avares, than the Saxons again 
broke out into open rebellion. At last, after eight cam- 
paigns (793 — 804), Charlemagne, with the assistance of 
the Obotrites (in the country now called Mecklenburg), 
after transplanting many of the Saxons into other countries, , 
and conciliating several of their most influential nobles by 
grants of land, succeeded in persuading the people to ac- 
knowledge his authority, and embrace Christianity, without 
86 formally concluding a peace. 1 

d 3. War in Spaiti (778). At a diet held by Charlemagne 

[ 2 There was no peace concluded at Selz, as has been generally 
supposed.] 



87 90. §20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 47 

at Paderborn,on his return from his third campaign against (86) 
the Saxons, a petition for assistance against the Emir A 
Abderrahman was presented to the king by the banished 
governor of Saragossa. Charlemagne immediately entered 
Spain, and subdued the whole of the country lying between 
the Pyrenees and the Ebro, which was annexed, under the 
name of the Spanish March, to the Frankish empire, 
but, even during the lifetime of Charlemagne, was fre- 
quently lost and recovered. On the homeward march, his 
army was attacked by the mountaineers of Gascony, and 
well-nigh annihilated in the pass of Roncesvalles (where 
the renowned Roland lost his life). 

4. War with the Avars (788— 801). Duke Tassilo of 87 
Bavaria, who had several times violated his oath of alle- B 
giance to Charlemagne at the instigation of his wife (a 
daughter of Desiderius, king of Lombardy), and been 
overthrown after a short campaign in 787, again raised the 
standard of rebellion in conjunction with the Avars, but 
was a second time defeated, taken prisoner, and confined in 
a monastery. His dukedom was incorporated into the 
Frankish empire. Charlemagne then attacked the Avars 
in their own country, which he ravaged as far as the Raab ; 
and, at a later period, his son Pepin was sent to subdue the 
whole of the territory from the Ems to the Raab, which 
was now denominated the Avaric March. 

5. ,A war was carried on oy his son Charles against the 88 
Danes and Wilzes, who had attacked Charlemagne's c 
allies, the Obotrites. After the murder of their king 
Gottfried, the Danes concluded a peace (810), by which 
the Eider was recognized as the boundary between 
their country and that of the Franks. The Wilzes were 
soon afterwards entirely subdued. 

In order to secure the frontiers of his empire, which 89 
now extended from the Ebro to the Raab, and from Bene- 
vento to the Eider, Charlemagne established, especially in 
the east, Margravates (Friuli, the Spanish, Avaric, and 
Danish Marches, &c.) 

Restoration of the Western Roman Empire 90 
(800). Pope Leo III., having been shamefully ill-treated D 
by the opposite party during a solemn procession, ap- 
peared before the diet at Paderborn, and induced Char- 
lemagne (who had already assumed the office of protector 



48 THE MIDDLE AGES. [91. §20. 

(90) of the Church, in his character of Roman Patrician), 

A to visit Rome and chastise the offenders. In return for 
the assistance thus afforded, Charlemagne on Christmas- 
day in the year 800, received from the Pope the title 
of Roman Emperor, and immediately required from 
his subjects an oath not merely of fidelity, but of unquali- 
fied submission to his commands. The new relation be- 
tween the Emperor and Pope was not that of a vassal to 
his feudal lord, but rather the co-existence of two su- 
preme authorities, the spiritual being exercised by 

B the Pope and the temporal by the Emperor. This supre- 
macy was mutually recognized ; the Pope, as restorer of 
the western empire, enjoying the privilege of placing the 
imperial crown on the head of the Emperor, to whom he 
administered an oath of allegiance to the Holy See ; whilst, 
on the other hand, no election of a Pope was valid unless 
approved and confirmed by the Emperor. Both parties 
pledged themselves to act in concert, and support one 
another on all occasions. 

Charlemagne's administration. 
91 a. Ecclesiastical and educational establishments. For 

c the confirmation of the Saxons in their profession of Chris- 
tianity, Charlemagne founded eight bishoprics in that 
country(Osnabriick and Miinster for the Westphalians, Min- 
den and Paderborn for the Engernians ; Bremen, Verden, 
and Hildesheim for the Eastphalians, and Halberstadt for 
the Thuringians). To each of these cathedrals, as well 
as to the monasteries, were annexed schools for instruc- 
tion in the seven liberal arts (see § 14. IV). In the 
establishment of these seminaries, Charlemagne was as- 
sisted by his own tutor, the Anglo-Saxon monk, Alcuin. 

D At the same time measures were adopted for restoring the 
respectability of the clergy, by procuring for them a more 
liberal education, introducing among them the canonical 
life (a chapter of canons being attached to each cathedral), 
prohibiting war and the chase, exempting them from the 
jurisdiction of the civil courts, and appointing them to the 
most important offices of state. His subjects were also 
required to pay tithes to the Church. The affection of 
Charlemagne for his mother-tongue induced him to give 
German names to the months ; to compile, with the assist- 
ance of Alcuin, a grammar of the Frankish language, and 



92—94. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 49 

to publish a collection of old German heroic ballads. For (91) 
the improvement of church music, professors of singing a 
were invited from Rome by the advice of Alcuin. 

b. Legislation. Codes of laws in the Latin language 
were given to those nations (the Frieses, Saxons, and 92 
Thuringians) which possessed no written statutes ; whilst, 

at the same time, the ancient "leges" of the other tribes 
(see § 14, 2. c), especially the lex Salica, were enlarged 
by the addition of Capitularies, which were enacted at the 
diet, and thenceforth became the law, not merely of those 
tribes, but of the empire in general. To facilitate the 
execution of the laws, the right of asylum possessed by 
churches was considerably restricted. 

c. The Constitution, in all essential particulars, remained 93 
the same as it had been under the Merovingians ; the only b 
changes introduced being such as were rendered necessary 
by the progress of civilization. The feudal system was 
more fully developed; but, in spite of the opposition of 
Charlemagne, many of the fiefs became hereditary allodes. 
The division of estates into gaus, under the presidence of a 
count, who possessed the right of administering justice and 
calling out the army, was still retained ; and the officers 

of the court were the same as before, with the exception 
of the Majordomat, which was now merged in the royal 
dignity. These officers resided at the court of Aachen c 
[Aix-la-Chapelle], or at Ingelheim, and accompanied the 
emperor on his yearly progress through his dominions. 
The Archchaplain (Apocrisiarius) acted as the sovereign's 
vicegerent in spiritual matters, and the Comes Palatii in 
temporal. 

Besides the "field of May," or general review of the 94 
army, at which all males capable of bearing arms were 
present, Charlemagne held a second diet in the autumn, 
which was attended by the spiritual and temporal dignita- 
ries of the empire. At this diet, which assembled alter- d 
nately at Worms, Aachen, Duren, Paderborn, &c, questions 
of inferior moment were determined summarily, the more 
important being reserved for discussion at the next field of 
May. For the purpose of obtaining a more accurate 
knowledge of each province, Charlemagne every year sent 
into certain districts (legationes or missatica, each of which 
comprised several counties or dioce c es) imperial commis- 
3 



50 THE MIDDLE AGES. [95. § 20. 

(94) sioners (missi dominici), one of whom belonged to the high- 

a est rank of spiritual, and the other of temporal, nobility. 
The duty of these commissioners was to hold visitations 
(placita), at which the assembled ecclesiastics and nobility 
of the district were required to render an account of the 
different branches of administration. They were also em- 
powered to settle disputes, inspect the imperial demesnes, 
inquire into the condition of the churches and monasteries, 
and the lives of the clergy, and prepare a list of male per- 
sons capable of bearing arms. Every freeholder who 
possessed three (afterwards four) mansi, or homesteads, 

B was required to serve for three months in the army. Those 
who possessed less than- the above qualification were 
allowed to club together and arm one of their number. 
The militia of each province was commanded by a duke. 
A fine of sixty solidi was imposed on all who neglected to 
appear in arms at the place of rendezvous, and those who 
were unable to pay this penalty were sent to work it out 
on the imperial farms. Spiritual persons were exempt 
from military service, but were required to arm their able- 
bodied vassals. The punishment of death continued to be 

c inflicted on deserters. It was forbidden to carry weapons 
in time of peace. The imperial revenues were derived 
from the following sources : aa, the (163) crown demesnes; 
bb, presents from his subjects in the month of May; 
cc, duties; dd, land and poll taxes; ee, tributes of depen- 
dent nations. 
95 For the encouragement of commerce, which had been 
severely crippled by his numerous wars, Charlemagne esta- 
blished depots, opened annual markets, improved the high- 
ways, and diminished the imposts. 

After the conclusion of his war with the Saxons, the 
emperor divided his dominions among his three sons, 
Charles, Pepin, and Lewis, of whom only the youngest 

d survived him. At a diet held at Aachen in 813, Lewis 
was proclaimed his successor in the imperial and royal 
dignities, and received the crown from the hands of his 
father. Pepin's illegitimate son Bernard was permitted to 
hold the kingdom of Italy as a fief from his uncle. On the 
' 28th January in the following year Clarlemagne died at 
Aachen, and was buried in the cathedral of that city, which 
he himself had founded. 



96, 97. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 51 

3. Lewis the Pious (814—840). 

Lewis, whose benevolence, love of justice, and piety 96 
were, in a great measure, neutralized by his weakness of A 
purpose and ignorance of human nature, promulgated, at a 
diet at Aachen, a number of new regulations for the govern- 
ment of spiritual persons, monks, and nuns. In the year 
817 an imperial edict was issued, dividing the empire 
among his three sons, Lothar [Lothaire], Pepin, and Lewis. 
Lothar was raised to the imperial throne as the colleague of 
his father; Pepin received Aquitania ; and Lewis, Bavaria. 
Bernard of Italy was deprived of his sight for conspiring 
against his uncle, and soon afterwards died. The crown 
of Italy was then placed on the head of Lothar. 

Soon afterwards the emperor married a second wife 97 
(Judith, daughter of Count Welf ), by whom he had b 
Charles the Bald. The settlement of Alemannia, Alsace, 
and a part of Burgundy on this son, excited the envy of 
his brothers, who entered into a conspiracy against their 
father, which was followed up (after the compulsory ces- 
sion of Aquitania by Pepin to Charles) by a declaration 
of war. Lewis was taken prisoner in an engagement on 
the plain of Colmar (called from the treachery of his 
nobles the "perjurers' field"), deprived of his crown, and 
compelled to do penance in a monastery at Soissons. But 
the- arrogance of Lothar soon disgusted his brothers, who 
replaced their father on the throne. The sons of Pepin c 
(who died before his father) were excluded from the suc- 
cession, and the dominions of Lewis divided (by the advice 
of his wife) among his surviving children ; Charles the Bald 
receiving the western portion as far as the Maas (Meuse), 
Saone, and Rhone ; Lothar the eastern ; and Lewis only 
Bavaria. 



52 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 



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98 103. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 53 

The Successors of Lewis the Pious to 887. 

Immediately after the death of Lewis, a quarrel arose 98 
among his sons, in consequence of an attempt on the part A 
of Lothar, as emperor, to exclude his brothers from all par- 
ticipation in the government. A battle was fought in 841, 
near the village of F on ten ay (Fontenaille), in Burgundy, 
in which Lothar was defeated. The war, however, con- 
tinued until 843, when Lothar found himself compelled to 
conclude with his brothers the famous Treaty of Ver- 
dun, by which 

Lewis (surnamed the German) received all the Frank- 99 
ish territory on the right bank of the Rhine (with the ex- 
ception of Friesland), together with Spiers, Worms, and 
Mainz. 

Charles the Bald had all the western provinces as 100 
far as the Scheld, Maas, Saone, and Rhone. b 

Lothar had the territory eastward of those rivers to the 101 
Alps and the Rhine, with the exception of three' cities. 
The southern portion of this strip of land was called Bur- 
gundy, and the northern Lorraine (Lotharii regnum). Italy 
-and Friesland were also settled on him. 

The three new kingdoms were soon disquieted by intes- 102 
tine commotions, the quarrels of their sovereigns with one 
another, and perpetual contests with a wild piratical race 
called the Normans, or Northmen, who availed them- 
selves of the distracted condition of the empire to make 
descents on the coasts, especially of western France. Sail- c 
ing in their light galleys up the Loire, Garonne, and Rhone, 
they sacked the cities of Rouen, Paris, &c, ravaged the 
country, and overthrew the armies of Charles the Bald. 
Italy was also visited by these marauders, as well as by the 
Arabian pirates. In Germany, the Normans sailed up the 
Elbe, and burnt the city of Hamburg, but were beaten back 
by Lewis. During the whole period of this prince's reign, 
the eastern frontier of his kingdom was the scene of per- 
petual struggles with Sclavonic tribes, particularly with 
the Bohemians and Moravians. 

The Emperor Lothar I. at his death, in 855, had divided 103 
his kingdom among his three sons; the youngest of whom, d 
Charles, died in 863, leaving his portion to be equally 
distributed between his surviving brothers, the Emperor 



54 THE MIDDLE AGES. [104 109. § 20. 

(103) Lewis II. and Lothar II. After the death of this Lothar, 
A his kingdom of Lorraine was seized by his uncles, Lewis 
the German and Charles the Bald. 

104 Lewis II. having died without male issue, in 875, Charles 
the Bald anticipating his elder brother, Lewis the German, 
hastened into Italy, where he was crowned king of that 
country and Roman emperor. On the death of Lewis the 
German, in the following year (876), his kingdom was 
divided among his three sons ; the youngest of whom, 
Charles the Fat, became sole occupant of the throne 

B after the decease of both his brothers. As none of the 
descendants of Charles the Bald survived, after the death 
of bis son Lewis the Stammerer (877 — 879), and two elder 
grandsons, with the exception of an infant named Charles 
the Simple, little difficulty was experienced by Charles 
the Fat in reuniting the whole Frankish monarchy 
(885 — 887), with the exception of the Spanish March, the 
dukedom of Carinthia, and the cisjuranic kingdom of Bur- 
gundy (separated in 879), the crown of which had been 
conferred by the estates on Count Boso (of Vienne), 
brother-in-law of Charles the Bald. The power of Charles, 
however, was insufficient either to repress the intestine 
disturbances of his kingdom, or make head against the 

c Normans, who burnt Cologne, Bonn, and Treves. His 
pusillanimity in consenting to pay tribute, and abandoning 
Burgundy to the Normans, so displeased his subjects, that 
at a diet held at Tribur, in 887, he was set aside, and died 
in the beginning of the following year. The Frankish 
empire was then broken up into five portions, viz. : — 

105 1. The western Frankish empire was assigned 
to Count Otho of Paris, brother-in-law of Lewis the 
Stammerer. 

106 2. Germany to Arnulf, Duke of Carinthia, a natural 
D son of Carloman, and grandson of Lewis the German. 

107 3 and 4. Burgundy was divided into transjuranic 
andcisj uranic; the former founded by Rudolf Welf, pre- 
viously Duke of the West Franks ; the latter governed, 
since 879, by Boso, son-in-law of the Emperor Lewis II. 

108 5. In Italy, the sovereignty was disputed between 
Guido of Spoleto, and Berengar, Margrave of Friuli. 

109 Domestic History (814—887). Under the feeble 
successors of Charlemagne, there arose a temporal and 



109. §20.] FEANKISH EMPIRE. » 55 

ecclesiastical aristocracy, whose influence increased (109) 
in proportion to the decline of the imperial authority, and a 
the subjugation of the common freeholders, most of whom 
were compelled by violence and oppression to hold their 
estates as fiefs from the nobility and clergy. These usur- 
pations were facilitated by the practice, which daily became 
more general, of making fiefs hereditary, and by the right 
which the nobles had gradually acquired of electing their 
own sovereign on the extinction of a dynasty, as well as 
by the suppression of the royal commissioners. Instead of B 
offering any effectual opposition to these encroachments, 
the kings were only too happy, amidst partitions of the 
empire, intestine disputes, and foreign wars, to conciliate 
the favor of the nobles by the most unlimited concessions. 
Among other instances of weakness, it may be mentioned, 
that Charles the Bald granted to the West Frankish nobility 
the right of resisting with the strong hand the introduction 
of any measure which they might consider unjust. The 
dukedoms which had been suppressed by Charlemagne 
were now restored, especially in those provinces which 
were threatened with foreign invasion, where the authority 
of the king was inadequate to the maintenance of peace : in 
Thuringia, for instance, against the Sorbes, and in Saxony 
against the Normans, in the reign of Lewis the German. 
The influence of the clergy over all classes became daily c 
more confirmed, as the institutions of the Church developed 
themselves ; and men discovered that the ecclesiastical body 
enjoyed exclusive possession of the learning of those days. 
The so-called decretals of St. Isidore did not, it is true, 
establish a power which existed in its fullest extent before 
their publication, but they served, by authoritatively pro- 
claiming the actual supremacy of the Church, to consolidate 
and uphold her claims to universal dominion. 1 

[* About the year 867, a German deacon, named Benedictus Levita, 
published a collection of ecclesiastical statutes, or "decretals," in which 
the supremacy of the Pope over general councils, and his right of 
appointing bishops and settling all ecclesiastical controversies, were 
distinctly asserted. As it was important to assign to these decretals 
a date antecedent to the empire, Benedict pretended that they were 
the production of St. Isidore, a Spaniard who flourished in the 
seventh century. Their genuineness was asserted by Pope Nicho- 
las I., who made them the groundwork of the papal claims to 



56 THE MIDDLE AGES. [110—112. §21,22. 

§ 21. The East Frankish Empire under the two last 
Carlovingians (887 — 911). 

110 1. Arnulf (887 — 899) compelled Guido and the two 
A kings of Burgundy to acknowledge him as their feudal 

lord, and thus re-united Italy and Burgundy, as fiefs, to 
the German empire. The utter defeat of the Normans 
(891) served to raise the military reputation of Arnulf, 
but not to scare them from their acts of piracy, in 
which they were encouraged by the knowledge that the 
Moravians (who, since the fall of the Avaric monai'chy, had 
advanced as far as Hungary) were now, under their leader 
Zwentibold, menacing the eastern frontier of Germany. 
B By the aid of the Magyars, or Hungarians (who had 
proceeded up the Danube after their expulsion from their 
settlements on the Ural mountains by the Petschenegers), 
the Moravians- were compelled to evacuate their country 
(from the Gran to the Morawa), which was soon afterwards 
occupied by the Magyars. Arnulf was crowned emperor, 
but was unable to settle the disputes of the different can- 
didates for the crown of Italy. 

111 2. Lewis the Child (900 — 911). During the regency 
c of Archbishop Hatto of Mainz, and Duke Otho of Saxony 

(guardians of Lewis), the nobles had many opportunities 
of consolidating their power. In Bavaria and Alemannia 
national dukedoms were established for the protection of 
those countries against the marauding incursions of the 
Hungarians, who, since the overthrow of the Moravian 
empire, had almost every year invaded Carinthia and 
Bavaria, and, after the defeat of Lewis's army, had ravaged 
Alemannia, Thuringia, and Saxona. The ducal dignity 
was also re-established about this time in Lorraine and 
Franconia ; so that, at the termination of the Carlovingian 
dynasty, there were no less than six national dukes in 
Germany. 

§ Empire of the East Franks under Conrad I. of 
Franconia (911—918). 

112 After the extinction of the Carlovingian race, an attempt 

universal supremacy. — Wolf gang Menzels Geschichte derDeutsch.cn; 
Capitel 13 7. J 



113. §23.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 57 

was made by the nations in the south of Germany (the (112) 
Alemanni and Bavarians) to establish independent king- A 
doms. On the other hand, the Eastern Franks and Saxons 
proceeded to the election of an emperor, and chose Otho 
the Illustrious, duke of Saxony ; but that prince having 
refused the crown on account of his advanced age, a second 
election took place, and the East Frankish Duke Conrad 
was chosen on his recommendation, the Alemanni and 
Bavarians acquiescing in the choice. Lorraine, on the 
other hand, became a province of the West Frankish em- 
pire. During the whole of his reign, Conrad was occupied B 
in fruitless attempts to render the vassals, especially the 
dukes, subject to his authority ; the provinces being left in 
the mean time to defend themselves, as best they might, 
against repeated invasions of the Normans. Lorraine con- 
tinued to be a dependency of the West Frankish empire. 
The Duke of Bavaria, after sustaining a defeat, went over 
to the Hungarians, hoping with their assistance to maintain 
his independence. Henry, son of Otho the Illustrious, 
not only held possession of all his father's fiefs, but even 
established his right to the independent duchies of Saxony 
and Thuringia. On his deathbed Conrad recommended c 
Henry as his successor. There were now four German 
dukedoms, viz., Eastern Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, and 
Bavaria. 

§ 23. The German Empire under kings of the house of 
Saxony (919—1024). 

1. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler (919 — 936), 113 
quickly carried into effect the plans of his predecessor, 
subduing the Duke of Alemannia, who had availed him- 
self of the change of sovereigns to declare his country 
independent, as well as the Duke of Bavaria (who had 
returned from Hungary), and re-uniting Lorraine to the 
empire. An armistice for nine years was granted by the d 
Hungarians in return for the restoration to liberty of 
one of their princes, who had been taken prisoner in 
Hungary, the Germans engaging to pay an annual tribute 
during the whole of that period. This breathing time 
was employed by Henry in placing the army on a more 
efficient footing, building strongholds (Merseburg, Meissen, 
Quedlinburg, Nordhausen, Goslar — hence his surname of 
3* 



58 THE MIDDLE AGES. [114. §23. 

(113) the "City-builder"), establishing an order of knighthood, 
A and restoring the military games (the origin of tourna- 
ments). At the same time the army was exercised in 
warfare : 1. Against the Sclavonians from the Elbe to the 
Baltic. The conquest of these tribes enabled him to ex- 
tend the boundaries of the empire from the Elbe to the 
Middle Oder. 2. Against, the Normans, who were com- 
pelled to evacuate their territory from the Eider to Schles- 
wig. Three Margravates were established for the defence 
of the frontiers, viz. : a. North Saxony, against the Wilzes ; 
b. Meissen, against the Sclavonians ; c. Schleswig, against 
B the Normans. Having completed his preparations, Henry 
refused the further payment of tribute, and when the Hun- 
garians invaded Thuringia, overthrew them at Merseburg, 
in the year 933. He was succeeded by his second son, 

2. Otho I. (surnamed the Great), 

114 the first king elected by the common suffrages of the five 
principal nations. From this time the ceremony of coro- 
nation was always performed at Aachen [Aix-la-Chapelle]. 
The first years of his reign were passed in disputes with the 
Dukes of Bohemia, Bavaria, Franconia. and Lorraine, who 
had formed a confederacy with Otho's discontented brothers 
Tankmar and Henry, and even with Lewis IV., king of 
c France. After the termination of this contest, an attempt 
was made by Otho to diminish the influence of the dukes 
by the establishment in each province of a Count Palatine, 
or imperial lieutenant ; his own authority being at the same 
time strengthened by the elevation of four of his relations 
to the dukedom. His friend Herman Billing was invested 
with Otho's own dukedom of Saxony, in return for his 
services in putting an end to the Bohemian war. The 
D feudal supremacy of the emperor over the united (since 
933) kingdoms of Burgundy, which had been in abeyance 
since the death of Arnulph, was re-established; and in the 
year 933 Lorraine was divided into two dukedoms, viz., 
Upper Lorraine on the Moselle, and Lower Lorraine on the 
Maas [Meuse] and the sea-coast. The same care was be- 
stowed by Otho on ecclesiastical affairs and the establish- 
ment of schools, as on the improvement of the constitution ; 
laws were enacted against simony, the privileges of the 



115. §23.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 59 

Church augmented, and bishoprics established, especially (114) 
in the Sclavonic countries, Brandenburg and Havelberg. 

Foreign Wars. 1. The Danes, who had invaded and laid 115 
waste the Margravate of Schleswig (founded by Henry I.), a 
were compelled (after a single campaign, in which Otho 
advanced into Jutland as far as Ottesund) to recognize the 
feudal supremacy of Germany, and embrace Christianity. 
2. The Duke of Bohemia (Boleslav), who had a second 
time thrown off his allegiance, submitted to Otho, became 
a Christian, and founded the bishopric of Prague. 3. First 
Italian campaign. Italy had been severed from Germany 
since the days of Arnulf. Lothar, king of that country, 
having been assassinated by Berengar II., (Margrave of 
Ivrea), an appeal was made by Adelaide, widow of the mur- 
dered man, to Otho, who entered Italy, and having liberated 
and married the queen, was crowned king of the Lombards at 
Pavia, and soon afterwards (at Augsburg) invested Berengar 
with the sovereignty of Italy as a fief of Germany. 4. The b 
Hungarians, who had entered Bavaria with an army of 
100,000 men, were totally defeated on the plain of the 
Lech, and never again appeared in Germany. The Chris- 
tian religion was soon afterwards generally received among 
them. 5. A victory over the Wendish Sclavonians was 
followed by the recognition, on the part of the Duke of 
Poland, of the feudal supremacy of the German empire, as 
well as by the subjugation and conversion of all the Scla- 
vonian tribes as far as the Vistula. 6. Second Italian 
campaign. The complaints of Berengar's tyranny, which 
reached Otho from all quarters, induced him to send his 
son Ludolf into Italy, and after his death to visit that 
country in person. Having deposed Berengar, and assumed c 
the iron crown at Milan, Otho proceeded to Rome, where 
he revived the title of Emperor of the West, 
which, from that time (962), until the period of its extinction 
in 1806, was always borne by the German kings. After 
quelling repeated disturbances, and obtaining from the 
Romans a promise that no Pope should be chosen without 
his consent, Otho returned to Germany, where he endea- 
vored to improve the condition of his cities by encou- 
raging trade and manufactures, and especially by the 
establishment of markets. 7. In a third Italian campaign 
he wrested from the Greeks their possessions in Lower 



60 THE MIDDLE AGES. [116 118. §23. 

(115) Italy, with the exception of Benevento and Capua, which 
A were ceded to him by treaty ; the hand of the Greek princess 
Theophania being at the same time bestowed on his son 
Otho, who had already been crowned king and emperor. 

3. Otho II. (973—983). 

116 A war with France (during which KingLothar surprised 
Otho II. in Aachen, but was driven back as far as Paris) 
was terminated by Lothar's consenting to hold Lorraine as 
a fief of the empire. The refusal of the Greeks to give up 
certain lands in Apulia and Calabria, which he claimed as 
the dowry of his wife, furnished Otho with an excuse for 
entering Lower Italy, where he was defeated near Basan- 
tello, by the forces of the Greeks, assisted by the Arabians, 
whom they had summoned from Sicily for that purpose. 

B He died at Rome, in the midst of his preparations for a 
fresh campaign, and was succeeded by his son 

4. Otho III. (983—1002), 

117 a child of three years old, under the guardianship of his 
mother Theophania, and, after herdeath, of his grandmother 
Adelaide and his aunt the Abbess Matilda. Carinthia was 
separated from Bavaria, and erected into a seventh duchy. 
An attempt having been made by a party at Rome, headed 
by the Consul Crescentius, to emancipate themselves from 
the German yoke, Otho three times visited that city, and, 
after restoring tranquillity, assumed the imperial crown, 
and raised a nominee of his own to the papal chair, but, 
happily for Germany, was unable to carry out his favorite 
plan of making Rome the capital of the German empire. 

c A separate election of each province placed on the throne 
-as his successor a great-grandson of Henry I., 

5. Henry II. (surnamed the Saint) (1002 — 1024), 

118 the first king who was required, as the condition of his 
election, to guarantee to each nation all the privileges which 
had been at any time enjoyed by the people. During the 
absence of Henry in Germany, where he was detained by 
the intrigues of his enemies, an attempt was made by some 
of the provinces to throw off* the German yoke. Harduin, 
Margrave of Ivrea, caused himself to be proclaimed king 
of Italy, whilst at the same time Duke Boleslav, of Poland, 



119, 120. § 24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 61 

overran Bohemia and Moravia, and formed an alliance with (118) 
the discontented German princes. After defeating Har- a 
duin, and assuming the crown of Italy (at Pavia), Henry 
compelled Boleslav to evacuate Bohemia, and recognize 
him as his liege lord (probably only with reference to the 
provinces of Lusatia and Silesia). During a second visit 
to Italy, occasioned by a fresh attempt on the part of 
Harduin to obtain possession of that country, Henry was 
solemnly crowned emperor; and soon afterwards the death 
of Harduin terminated for ever the contests between the 
native and German princes for the possession of the Italian 
crown. A third Italian campaign was signalized by the B 
defeat of the Greeks, and the establishment in Apulia of 
the Norman allies, to whose co-operation Henry was in 
some measure indebted for his victory. 

§ 24. The German Empire under the Franconian Emperors 
(1024—1125). 

1. Conrad II. (1024—1039) 

was chosen at Mainz by the unanimous suffrages of the 119 
eight German dukes, and crowned at Aachen, Milan, and 
Rome. The first act of his reign was to confirm the Nor- 
mans in their settlements in Lower Italy. After the decease 
of Rudolph III., king of Burgundy, who died without issue, 
that country was added, as a lapsed fief, to the German 
empire, and at the same time the supremacy of Germany 
over Poland and Bohemia was re-established. On the c 
other hand, the March of Schleswig, which was no longer 
of any value as a barrier against the Normans, was ceded 
by Conrad to Canute, the king of Denmark, Norway, and 
England : and thus the Eider became again the northern 
boundai'y of the German empire. During his second visit 
to Italy, Conrad passed a law by which the smaller fiefs 
were made hereditary both in Germany and Italy. His 
family influence was extended by the nomination of four 
members of the royal house to the vacant dukedoms of 
Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, and Carinthia. 

2. Henry III. (1039—1056). 

The first act of Henry's administration was to consoli- 120 
date the family influence of which his father had laid D 
the foundation. By retaining the dukedoms of Bavaria 
and Swabia, which he had held before his elevation to the 



62 THE MIDDLE AGES. [121. §24. 

(120) throne, and allowing those of Carinthia and Franconia to 

A remain vacant, he established the imperial authority, with- 
out the intervention of any secondary power, over the whole 
of Southern Germany, as well as Italy and Burgundy. At 
the same time Bretislav, duke of Bohemia, who had in- 
vaded Poland, was reduced to submission, and the feudal 
sovereignty over Hungary insured for a season (1045 — 
1063) by the restoration of Peter, the exiled sovereign of 
that country. At this period the German empire com- 
prised three kingdoms (Italy, Burgundy, and Hungary); 
six German dukedoms (Alemannia, Bavaria, Franconia, 
Saxony, Upper and Lower Lorraine) ; and three Sclavo- 

B nian (Bohemia with Moravia, Poland, and Carinthia). For 
the better maintenance of peace in Alemannia, Bavaria, and 
Carinthia, dukes were re-established in those countries, but 
the dignity was never conferred on a native, and its pos- 
sessor was entirely dependent on the imperial crown. 
Franconia was already considered the hereditary property 
of the royal house. Introduction into Germany of the 
"Truce of God" (treuga Dei), by which all quarrels were 
suspended from Wednesday evening to Monday morning, 
as well as during the seasons of Lent and Advent. 
121 Henry's next project was the reformation of the 
Church, especially in Germany, with reference especially 
to its two most glaring abuses, — simony, or the sale of 
benefices, and the immoral lives of the clergy. As it was 
desirable that these reforms should emanate from the pope 
himself, Henry endeavored to re-establish unity in the 
Church, by setling aside three rival pontiffs, and raising a 

c German (Clement II.) to the papal throne. In return for 
these services the new pope placed the imperial crown on the 
head of Henry, and entered into a solemn engagement that 
thenceforth no election of a pope should be considered 
valid unless confirmed by the emperor. Stringent laws 
against the luxury of the clergy, and against simony, were 
enacted by Henry and four popes, who were successively 
elevated by him to the throne of St. Peter ; whilst, on the 
other hand, all his plans for subjecting the Church to the 
temporal power were cautiously but effectually resisted by 

D the papal chancellor, Hildebrand. The Normans were 
confirmed by Henry in the possession of their conquests 
in Apulia and Calabria, which they were afterwards con- 
tent to hold as vassals of the see of Rome. 



122, 123. §24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 63 

3. Henry IV. (1056—1106), 

a child of six years old, succeeded his father, under the 122 
guardianship of his mother the empress Agnes. The ad- a 
ministration of the kingdom, which had been usurped by 
Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, who had secured the person 
of the young king, was wrested from his grasp by Adalbert, 
archbishop of Bremen, whose insolence at last so irritated 
the nobles of Germany, that, at a diet held at Tribur, they 
offered Henry the choice either of renouncing his favorite 
or resigning the crown. Adalbert was banished in conse- 
quence of these threats, but at the end of three years he re- 
appeared at the imperial court, and endeavored to annihilate 
the party of his opponents. Otho, duke of Bavaria, was b 
falsely accused of high treason and deprived of his dukedom 
(which was conferred on his son-in-law We If [Guelph], 
founder of the junior Welfic [Guelphic] line; and his ally 
Magnus, son of the Duke of Saxony, was thrown into prison. 
After the death of Adalbert in 1072, Hanno again resumed 
the reins, which the infirmities of old age compelled him to 
resign at the end of a year. Being now left to himself and c 
his own evil passions, Henry committed the most capricious 
excesses, conferring dukedoms and bishoprics on his un- 
worthy favorites, and endeavoring to render Saxony 
immediately subject to the imperial crown. With this view 
fortresses were built, and garrisons distributed over the 
whole country ; and Magnus, who had been elected duke 
on the death of his father, was still detained a prisoner. 

War with the Saxons (1073—1075). 

The oppressive administration of the king, the insolence 123 
with which he treated the assembled nobles of Saxony, and d 
the lawless proceedings of the royal garrisons, so irritated the 
Saxons, that an insurrection at length broke out, and 60,000 
men appeared before Goslar, where Henry was at that time 
residing. In the extremity of his terror Henry fled to Harz- 
burg, and thence to Worms, where he was received with 
every mark of respect by the citizens, notwithstanding the 
opposition of their bishop. A peace was concluded at Gerstun- 
gen, the chief condition of which was, that all Henry's for- 
tresses in Saxony should be levelled with the ground. This 
peace the princes of Upper Germany and the Rhineland re- 
fused to ratify; and Henry in consequence again took the field, 
and overthrew the Saxons at Hohenbum on the Unstrut. 



64 THE MIDDLE AGES. [124. §24. 

Contest between Gregory VII. and the princes 
of Germany (1073—1085). " 
124 As archdeacon and chancellor of five successive popes, 

A Hildebrand had been gradually preparing the way for the 
development of his mighty project of rendering the Church 
independent, of the State, and using the authority thus acquired 
for the improvement and reformation of the Church itself. l 

B With this view he had, as early as the year 1 059, persuaded a 
council held in the church of St. John Lateran, to pass a reso- 
lution that thenceforth the pope should be elected by a college 
of cardinals, and accepted by the rest of the clergy and the 
Roman people; the emperor's right of confirming their choice 
being conferred on bim, after each election, by the pope him- 
self. As the most effectual mode of carrying this decree into 
effect, the pope conferred the title of Duke on the Norman 
prince Robert Guiscard, together with the fiefs of Apulia and 
Calabria, and invested him, by anticipation, with the sove- 

c reignty of the still unconquered island of Sicily. In return 
for these benefits, Guiscard solemnly pledged himself to 
secure freedom of election to the college of cardinals. In 
the year 1073 Hildebrand himself became pope, and by way 
of protest against the illegal removal of Gregory VI. by the 
Emperor Henry III. assumed the title of Gregory VII. In 
order fully to establish the independence of the clergy. Gre- 
gory renewed the laws against the marriage of spiritual 
persons and against simony, forbidding bishops and abbots to 
receive investiture (i. e. the ring and staff, which were in 
most instances purchased simoniacally) from the hands of 

D temporal sovereigns. Henry, whostill continued this practice 
in defiance of the pope's prohibition, was summoned to plead 
before a synod at Rome ; but, instead of obeying the mandate, 
he immediately assembled (at Worms, in 1076) a council of 
German and Lombard bishops, who deposed Gregory from 
the popedom. On receiving intelligence of this bold pro- 
ceeding, Gregory pronounced sentence of excommunication 
against the emperor, and absolved all his subjects from their 

1 ["The object of Gregory VII. in attempting to redress those more 
flagrant abuses which for two centuries had deformed the face of the 
Latin Church, is not incapable, perhaps, of vindication, though no 
sufficient apology can be offered for the means he employed. But the 
disinterested love of reformation, to which candor might ascribe the 
condition against investitures, is belied by the general tenor of his con- 
duct, exhibiting an arrogance without parallel, and an ambition that 
grasped at universal and unlimited monarchy." — Hallam,vol.h.p.270 .] 



125. § 24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 65 

oath of allegiance. An attempt was now made by Henry (124) 
to place Pope Gregory under the ban of the empire ; but a A 
meeting of German princes at Tribur, for the purpose of 
electing a new emperor, so alarmed him, that he crossed 
the Alps in the winter of 1077, and after three days of 
humiliation in the castle of Canossa, obtained from Gregory 
the reversal of the sentence of excommunication ; he, on his 
part, engaging to exercise none of the functions of royalty, 
until a diet of the empire should decide whether he might 
continue to wear the crown of Germany or not. During b 
Henry's absence the nobles had chosen in his room Duke 
Rudolph of Swabia, who pledged himself not to inter- 
fere in the election of bishops, and agreed that thenceforward 
the king's son should succeed to the throne only in virtue 
of his election, and not by hereditary right. After two in- 
decisive engagements (at Melrichstadt near Fulda, and 
Flarcheim near Miihlhausen) between Rudolph and Henry, 
the latter was again excommunicated by the pope, and in 
return deposed Gregory, and placed the Archbishop of 
Ravenna (Clement III.) on the papal throne. In a third 
battle (on the Elster), Rudolph was mortally wounded by 
Duke Godfrey of Bouillon. Henry now left the prosecu- c 
tion of the war in Germany to Frederic of Hohenstaufen 
(on whom he had conferred the dukedom of Swabia, void 
by the elevation of Rudolph to the throne), and marching 
into Italy, took Rome after a siege of three years, and re- 
ceived the imperial crown from the hands of Clement III. 
Gregory, who had taken refuge in the castle of St. Angelo, 
was released by Robert Guiscard, and immediately fled to 
Monte Cassino, and subsequently to Salerno, where he died 
in 1085, after again pronouncing sentence of excommuni- 
cation against Henry. During Henry's absence the Saxons d 
and Swabians had elected Count Herman of Luxem- 
burg (1081 — 1088), who obtained one victory over Henry 
(at Bleichfield near Wiirtzburg in 1086), and soon after- 
wards resigned his crown. 

Rebellion of the sons of Henry IV. against 
their father (1093—1105). 

Henry's eldest son Conrad, who had already been 125 
crowned as his successor in Germany, raised the standard 
of rebellion against his father, and assumed the crown of 



66 THE MIDDLE AGES. [126. § 24. 

(125) Italy at the instigation of the adversaries of Clement IN., 
A who had elevated Urban II. to the papal throne. For this 
act of treason Conrad was deprived of the succession by- 
sentence of a diet assembled at Cologne, and the crown 
secured to his brother Henry, who was required to pro- 
mise that he would not claim the sovereign authority 
during the lifetime of his father. Henry, however, soon 
violated his engagement, and headed an insurrection under 
the auspices of Pope Pascal 11., who had renewed the bull 
of excommunication against Henry IV. on learning that 
the emperor was making preparations for the election of an 
B anti-pope. Although his personal liberty had been three 
times guaranteed by his son, Henry was seized and com- 
pelled to sign his abdication at Ingelheim. Thence he fled 
to Liege, where he died in the year 1106. His body was 
afterwards disinterred, and removed to Spiers, where it was 
buried on the removal of the ban of excommunication in 
1111. 

4. Henry V. (1106—1125) 

126 had a twofold object in view : 1. The restoration of 
the royal authority, which had fallen into contempt ; 
2. The termination oft he disputes with the pope 
respecting investiture, which had been revived by a 

c fresh decree of Pascal II. The first of these objects was 
promoted by the re-assertion of the almost obsolete claims 
of the German king to feudal supremacy over Bohemia 
and Poland, both of which countries were again compelled 
to pay tribute. A proposal of the pope, that the king 
should renounce the right of investiture, on condition of 
the bishops restoring to the empire all the fiefs which had 
belonged to it since the days of Charlemagne, having been 
generally resisted by the German clergy, Henry seized the 
person of the pope, and compelled him to renounce his own 
claim to the right of investiture, and place the imperial 

D crown on the head of his adversary. No sooner, however, 
had he quitted Italy, than the pope annulled the decree, on 
the ground of its having been obtained by intimidation, and 
pronounced the ban of excommunication against Henry, 
which was renewed by the two succeeding popes. At 
length the contest, which had lasted fifty years, was ter- 
minated by the conclusion, in the year 1122, of the Con- 



127, 128. §24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 67 

cordat of Worms, in which Henry, whose kingdom was (126) 
disquieted by the insurrections of his nobles, agreed to A 
renounce the right of investiture with the ring and staff, 
retaining only the sceptre; the pope, on his part, consent- 
ing that the election of bishops and abbots should take 
place in the imperial presence, and that, in the event of a 
disputed election, the question should be decided by the 
emperor, the archbishop and provincial bishops acting as 
his assessors. 

Changes in the constitution during the Saxoii and 
Franconian period. 

The Monarchy. With the extinction of the Carlovingian 127 
line disappeared also the practice of dividing the kingdom B 
among sons ; but the hereditary right of succession was in 
some sort retained ; inasmuch as the heir was invariably 
chosen by the electors as long as any member of the family 
survived. The election (from the same dynasty), and at a 
later period the coronation of the successor to the throne, 
took place during the lifetime of the reigning monarch. 
Whilst the officers appointed by the king were acquiring 
the right of hereditary succession, the monarchy itself was 
gradually becoming elective ; and the legality of this mode 
of proceeding was at length formally asserted at the-election 
of Rudolph of Swabia. The limits of the royal authority c 
were' not defined by statute, its greater or less extent 
depending principally on the family or personal influence 
of the sovereign. 

The Dukes, who had been restricted by Charlemagne 128 
to the duty of leading the people in time of war, for 
which they were originally appointed, extended their 
sphere of action, after his death, by assuming the functions 
of the suppressed royal missi or commissioners, especially 
as regarded the presidency in courts of justice and pro- 
vincial assemblies. Thus they acquired no inconsiderable d 
influence in the election of kings ; whilst, on the other 
hand, their authority was crippled by the rising power of 
the cities, and the establishment of principalities under 
Margraves, Landgraves, &c. They were nominated by 
the king, but could only be removed for scandalous 
offences, and with the consent of the diet. Under Henry 
IV . most of the dukedoms became hereditary. 



68 THE MIDDLE AGES. [129—133. §25. 

129 The Margraves, the number of whom was increased in 
A the reign of Henry I. by conquests in the east, remained 

almost entirely independent of the dukes, whose military 
power they possessed in conjunction with the judicial 
authority of the counts. 

130 The Counts Palatine were appointed partly for the 
superintendence of single palaces or fortresses with their 
districts, and partly for the government of entire provinces, 
in which, as the king's lieutenants, they watched over the 
administration of the law. The most important among 
them was the Count Palatine of the Rhine. 

131 The Counties were all hereditary under the Franconian 
B princes. The most important duty of the count was the 

administration of justice. 



§ 25. Italy (888—1125). 
A. The kingdom of Italy, 

132 comprising upper and central Italy, was governed 1) by 
kings of its own until the year 961. After the death of 
Arnulf, whose claims to the Italian orown could only be 
supported as long as he remained in Italy, fresh disputes 
arose between Friuli and Spoleto ; and until the reign of 
Otho I., who re-united Italy to Germany in 961 (see § 78), 
each king had to contest the possession of the crown with 

c a rival claimant. At the same time the country was 
ravaged by the Hungarians, whose assistance was invoked 
sometimes by one party, and sometimes by the other. 

133 2) by German kings, who remained in undisturbed pos- 
session of the Italian throne, with the exception of a fruit- 
less attempt on the part of the Margrave Harduin of Ivrea 
(see § 80) to depose Henry II. From the time of Otho 
I., Italy seems to have been split into a number of fiefs, 
some of them spiritual (in which episcopal vicecomites 
exercised the functions of counts), and some temporal 

D (under counts and margraves). Under the Othos, all the 
privileges which had before belonged to the kings (the 
right of imposing duties, of coining money, establishing 
markets, &c, were gradually conferred c« Italian sub- 
jects, principally on the priesthood ; but in order to pre- 
vent the great feudal lords from becoming too powerful, 



134, 135. §25.] italy. 69 

the inferior fiefs were made hereditary by a constitution of (133) 
the Emperor Conrad, promulgated on the plains of Ron- A 
caglia in 1038 ; and a law was at the same time passed, 
securing to every man the right of being tried by his peers. 
During the decline of the imperial authority, consequent on 
the disputes of Henry IV. and V. with the Church, the 
Lombard cities repudiated the government of the emperor's 
lieutenants, and formed themselves into republics, under 
consuls and magistrates of their own, the German king still 
retaining his title of King of Italy. 

B. Venice. 

The Venetian islands, which had been peopled by the 134 
emigration consequent on Attila's invasion of Italy, were, B 
in the first instance, governed by tribunes, and subject to 
the Roman empire, then to the Ostrogothic, and at a later 
period again to the Roman. In the year 697 the whole 
group was placed under the administration of an officer 
named Dux or Doge; but their political relations with the 
eastern empire continued until the separation of Venice 
and the other Italian states from the Byzantine government, 
occasioned by the edicts of the iconoclastic emperors. 
About the year 800, the seat of government was esta- 
blished on the Rialto, an island which had successfully 
resisted the attacks of King Pepin (son of Charlemagne). 
Being joined by bridges to the other islands, it became the c 
centre of a maritime city, which enlarged its dominions by 
conquests in Dalmatia, about the year 1000 ; and by means 
of an extensive commerce, for which its position between 
two of the most powerful states of Europe afforded extra- 
ordinary facilities, soon became one of the most important 
cities of Italy, and eventually of the world. 

C. Papal Italy, or the States of the Church. 

The foundation of the pope's temporal power was laid 135 
by Pepin (see § 59), who settled on the popedom the pro- d 
vinces of Romagna and Urbino, an endowment which 
Charlemagne not only confirmed, but augmented by grants 
of land in Tuscany ; and perhaps of those estates on the 
other side of the Tiber, which had been ceded to the 
empire by the Duke of Benevento. To this patrimony of 
St. Peter, as it was called, Henry III. added the city of 



70 THE MIDDLE AGES. [136, 137. §25. 

(135) Benevento, in return for the renunciation by the pope 
A (Leo IX.) of the revenues and patronage of certain 
Frankish churches; and a still more important accession of 
territory was obtained through the liberality of the Mar- 
gravine Matilda of Tuscany, who bequeathed (in 1077, not 
in 1102) all her allodes to the see of Rome. Lastly, the 
Normans consented to hold Apulia and Calabria as fiefs ; 
but, during this period, no temporal authority was exercised 
by the pope over Rome itself, or the dukedom in which it 
was situated. 

D. Lower Italy. 

136 On the ruins of the Lombard empire arose the Lorn- 
b bardic dukedom of Benevento, which comprehended 

the greater part of the present kingdom of Naples, and was 
at first independent, but subsequently became a Frankish 
fief. At a later period Salerno and Capua separated 
from Benevento, and formed a second and third Lombardic 
principality. The Greeks retained only Calabria, and a 
narrow strip of territory along the western coast (with the 
cities of Terracina, Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi), which 
were exposed to perpetual attacks from the Arabians, who 
had been settled in Sicily since the year 827, and in a 
short time established themselves also in Bari. 

137 In the fourteenth century the whole of lower Italy 
c became a prey to the Normans, who had first visited Italy 

as adventurers in the year 1017, and, in return for certain 
military services, had obtained from the Greek duke a strip 
of land, on which they built the city of Aversa. From this 
stronghold the twelve sons of Count Tancred, of Haute- 
ville, sallied forth to subdue Calabria and Apulia; and 
one of them, Robert Guiscard (surnamed the Cunning), was 
invested by Pope Nicholas II. with the dignity of duke, 
and thefiefsof Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, the last of which 
had been conquered by his brother Roger after a thirty 
D years' war. Under pretence of replacing on the throne 
the deposed Emperor Michael VIII. (father-in-law of his 
daughter), Robert Guiscard raised an army, and after 
obtaining a victory at Durazzo, and placing a garrison in 
that key of the eastern empire, advanced towards Con- 
stantinople; but the exhaustion of his army, an insurrec- 
tion of the Apulian cities, and the expedition of Henry IV. 



138—144. §26.] France. 71 

against Pope Gregory VII., compelled him to retrace his (137) 
steps. After liberating the pope, Robert undertook a a 
second expedition against Greece, and died during the 
campaign (at Cephalonia, in 1085). After the decease of 
his grandson (who died without issue), Apulia and Cala- 
bria were united with Sicily, by Roger II., son of his 
youngest brother, who was crowned King of the Two 
Sicilies in 1130. 

E. The Islands. 

1. Sicily was taken from the Byzantines (in 827) by 138 
the Arabians, who were compelled to surrender it to the b 
Normans in 1060. 

2. Sardinia was wrested from the Byzantines (850) by 139 
the Arabians, and from the Arabians by Pisa (1022). 

3. Corsica at first was subject to the Arabians, and 140 
then became the object of a struggle, which lasted 200 
years, between Genoa and Pisa. 

§ 26. France under the last Carlovingians. 

As Chai'les, third son of Lewis the Stammerer, was still 141 
a child, when the Frankish empire was divided for the 
third time, the nobles, who were hard-pressed by the 
invading Normans, elected 

l.'Otho, Count of Paris (888—898), who was unable 142 
either to restrain the insolence of the Normans, or obtain c 
a general recognition of his title to the throne. 

2. Charles III., surnamed the Simple (898—929), 143 
who was elected in opposition to Otho (in 893), and after his 
death recognized as sole king, conferred on Rollo (or Rolf, 

a Norman prince, who had embraced Christianity, and 
been baptized by the name of Robert), the dukedom of 
Normandy with the feudal sovereignty of Bretagne, an 
arrangement which put an end to the Norman invasions. 
After the extinction of the Carlovingian race in Germany, d 
Charles took possession of Lorraine. Several nobles of 
the kingdom, being discontented with Hagano, the minister 
of Charles, conspired against the king, and elected (922) 

3. Robert, duke of Francia, brother of Count Otho, 144 
who was slain (after reigning one year) in a battle against 
Charles at Soissons. fie was succeeded by his son-in-law, 



72 THE MIDDLE AGES. [145 — -149. §26. 

145 4. Rudolph, duke of Burgundy (923—936). Charles 
A died in prison in 929. Lorraine re-united with Germany 

by Henry I. Repeated invasions of the Hungarians. On. 
the death of Rudolph, without male issue, 

146 5. Lewis IV. (surnamed the Stranger), the son of 
Charles the Simple, returned from England, and ascended 
the throne (936 — 954). Unsuccessful attempt to recover 
Normandy. His son and successor 

147 6. Lothar (954 — 986) carried on a war with Otho II. 
b for the re-conquest of Lorraine, with no success, be- 
yond obtaining for his brother Charles a grant of Lower 
Lorraine, to be held as a fief of Germany. On the death 
of his son 

148 7. Lewis V. (Faineant) without male issue, after a 
reign of fourteen months, his uncle Charles, duke of Lower 
Lorraine, was excluded from the succession, as being a Ger- 
man vassal, and Hugo [Hugh], surnamed Capet (from 
the robe,, cappa, which he wore as a lay abbot ?), duke of 
Francia, was proclaimed king by his vassals in 987. 

149 France about this time was split into a multitude of 
c greater and smaller fiefs, which became at length so nume- 
rous, as to leave no territory subject to the immediate 
control of the last Carlovingians except Soissons, Laon, and 
a few insignificant provinces. The immediate fiefs of the 
crown, the possessors of which might be said to share the 
sovereignty of the country with the king, rather than to be 
dependent on him, were the four dukedoms of Francia 
(between the Seine and Loire), Normandy with Bretagne, 
Aquitaniaor Guienne (to which the dukedom of Gascony was 
united at a later period), and Burgundy , and the threecoun- 
ties of Toulouse, Flanders, and Vermandois (of which St. 

D Quentin was the capital) . At the same time a distinction was 
established between northern and southern France, 
founded on the difference of language (the langue d'oil, or 
d'oui, also langue Frangaise, being spoken north of the 
Loire, and southwards of that river the langue d'oc, which 
at a later period was termed the Provenqal tongue), man- 
ners (the northern French character being more daring, 
warlike, and fond of display ; the southern more quick-wit- 
ted and cunning, but at the same time more industrious and 



150— 155. §27, 28.] England. 73 

contented), and legal codes (in the north the Territorial ; in (149) 
the south the Roman). A 

§ 27. France under the four first Capets (987 — 1108). 

1. Hugh Capet (987— 996), Duke of Francia and 150 
Count of Orleans, annexed the dukedom of Francia to the 
crown, and having gained over the clergy by granting 
them benefices, and the lay nobles by confirming them in 
the hereditary possession of their fiefs, was universally 
recognized as king, after the death of Duke Charles of 
Lower Lorraine, the last scion of the Carlovingian house. 

He was, however, merely the first of more than forty no- 
bles. His son B 

2. Robert (996—1031) added the dukedom of Bur- 151 
gundy to the possessions of the crown, and bestowed it as 

a fief on his third son Robert (founder of the younger 
Burgundian line, and ancestor of the kings of Portugal). 

3. Henry (1031— 1060). Establishment of the Treuga 152 
Dei by the decrees of several councils. 

4. Philip I. (1060—1108). At the beginning of his 153 
reign, under the guardianship of Count Baldwin of Flan- c 
ders, Duke William of Normandy conquers England, 
which is separated from Normandy after his death, his son 
William (Rufus) inheriting the former, and his eldest son 
Robert the latter. 

§ 28. England under the West Saxon kings (827 — 1016). 

The Seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, or Saxon Heptarchy, 154 
after a series of struggles, were united under one crown by 
Egbert, king of Wessex, the first who gave the name of 
England (in 800) to the island of Britain. The Danes orD 
Normans, who for half a century (since 787) had harassed 
the separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by repeated inva- 
sions, renewed their attacks towards the end of Egbert's 
reign, and continued to ravage the country until the time 
of his youngest grandson 

Alfred the Great (871—901), 

who had been anointed by the pope while yet a child. On 155 
his accession, Alfred found the whole of England, as far as 
Wessex, and subsequently as far as Somerset, in the hands 
of the Danes ; and as most of the native inhabitants had 
4 



74 THE MIDDLE AGES. [156, 157. §29. 

(155) either abandoned the island, or submitted to the invader, 
A he was compelled to pass one winter as a fugitive in the 
forests of Somersetshire. In the disguise of a minstrel, 
Alfred visited the Danish camp, and, availing himself of 
the information thus acquired, he took the field at the head of 
the loyal inhabitants of three Gaus, and defeated the Danes 
at Heddington. Gothrun, the Danish leader, was per- 
suaded to embrace Christianity, and surrender East Anglia, 
Northumbria, and a few cities of Mercia to the conqueror. 

156 Having thus secured peace, at least for a season, Alfred 
b employed the time in restoring the cities (London among 

the rest) and fortresses which had been demolished by the 
Danes, building a fleet, fortifying the coasts against foreign 
invaders, and facilitating the administration of justice by 
the publication of a code of laws, and the division of the 
country into counties, hundreds, and tithings. Schools were 
also established in all parts of the country, learned men 
invited to visit England, and Latin authors translated into 
the vernacular language of England by Alfred himself. 
From these peaceful occupations, Alfred was summoned to 
defend his kingdom against the Normans, who had landed 
on the coast of Britain after their defeat at Louvain by 

c Arnulph. At the same time his hereditary dominions were 
assailed by two fleets manned by rebellious East Anglians 
and Northumbrians, who were soon compelled to return to 
their allegiance; but it required a war of three years, and 
a succession of decisive battles, to drive the Normans out 
of England. The reigns of Alfred's successors were dis- 
quieted by repeated insurrections of the Anglo-Danes, 
reinforced by bands of their continental brethren. Ethel- 
red three times purchased peace at the expense of an 
annual tribute, termed the Danegeld ; but these concessions 

D only incited the Danes to fresh acts of plunder. The dis- 
covery of a conspiracy against the king's life induced 
Ethelred to command the massacre of all the Danes in his 
dominions on the same day (Nov. 13, 1002), an act of 
cruelty which Sweyn and his son and successor Canute 
avenged by conquering the whole of England. 

§ 29. Supremacy of the Danes in England (1016 — 1042). 

157 Canute (1016 — 1035), who at first shared the throne 
with Edmund Ironsides, the son of Ethelred, became, by 



158, 159. §30, 31.] England. 75 

the death of his colleague, monarch of all England, which (157) 
he divided into four provinces, viz., Wessex, Mercia, A 
East Anglia, and Northumbria, secured their rights of 
property to the Anglo-Saxons as well as to the Danes, by 
legislative enactments, forbad heathenish rites, increased 
the number of churches and convents, and enriched them 
with liberal gifts. By a convention with the Emperor 
Conrad II., Canute became master of the March of 
Schleswig. In the year 1028 he also conquered Nor- 
way and the north British kingdoms of Scotland and 
Cumberland. His pilgrimage to Rome. After his death, B 
his mighty empire was divided between his son Hardica- 
nute, who received Denmark as his portion, and his two 
(probably) supposititious sons, Sweyn and Harold, the 
former of whom was crowned King of Norway, and the 
latter of England. After Harold's death, Hardicanute 
became also king of England, and, dying suddenly with- 
out issue, was succeeded by an Anglo-Saxon prince, 
Edward the Confessor, youngest and only surviving 
son of Ethelred. 

§ 30. Restoration and extinction of the Anglo-Saxon 
dynasty (1042—1066). 

Edward III. (The Confessor (1042—1066) was 158 
entirely under the influence of Norman favorites and of c 
Earl Godwin, whose daughter was married to the king, and 
who with his sons possessed the larger and richer half of 
England. The introduction of the Norman language, man- 
ners and customs into England excited universal discontent 
among the Saxon inhabitants. After his death the throne 
was occupied by his brother-in-law, Harold II., who D 
made head against his rebellious brother and his ally the 
King of Norway, but was overthrown- and lost his life in 
a battle fought near Hastings (Oct. 14, 1066), where 
William of Normandy had landed with 60,000 
picked soldiers. By this victory William gained the 
English crown, and the surname of " The Conqueror." 

§ 31. Scotland. 

The earliest inhabitants of Scotland were the Picts and 159 
Scots, the one a Celtic, the other an Irish race, both 
governed by kings of their own until the year 842, when 



76 THE MIDDLE. AGES. [160,161. §32,33. 

(159) Kenneth II., King of the Scots, having conquered the 
A Picts, united the two kingdoms under the name of Scot- 
land. The Norman piratical hordes from Denmark and 
England were successfully withstood by the Scots, who 
formed an alliance with the Anglo-Saxons. The kingdom 
of Cumberland was conferred as a fief on Malcolm I. by 
Edmund Ironsides, grandson of Alfred ; the Scotch 
monarch pledging himself to render military service 
whenever called on. Scotland and Cumberland were con- 
quered by Canute, but permitted to retain their own kings 
as feudatories of England. 

§ 32. Ireland. 

160 Ireland, at its conquest by the English in 1172, seems to 
b have been divided into five states — Connaught, Ulster, 

Leinster, Munster, and Meath, each governed by its own 
king, but on some occasions subject also to one of the 
number, who exercised a sort of feudal authority over the 
others. As early as the fifth century the Irish were con- 
verted to Christianity (by St. Patrick ?), convents and 
schools were established, and holy men visited the con- 
tinent for the purpose of converting the heathen German 
c tribes (Comp. § 14, 1, a). A code of Irish laws (Brehon 
laws, i. e. decisions of the judges) is still extant. The 
progress of civilization was retarded for three centuries 
(from 795) by the piratical invasions of the Normans, who 
conquered portions, but were never able to establish their 
authority over the whole island. 

§ 33. Spain. 

161 1. The Arabian portion of the Peninsula, which 
D (until the year 1087)was separated from Christian Spain by 

the river Duero [Douro], enjoyed a period of uninterrupted 
prosperity under the Ommaijad Caliphs of Cordova (756 — 
1028), especially during the fifty years administration of 
Abderrahman III., (who subjugated the whole of Maurita- 
nia), and the reigns of his learned son Hakim II. and the 
great leader Almanzor. The country south of the Duero 
[Douro] had a population of twenty-five to thirty millions, 
with eighty cities of the first class. Cordova, the capital, 
contained more than a million of inhabitants, 600 mosques, 
eighty public schools, and a university with a library of 



162—164. §33.] spain. 77 

600,000 volumes. The descriptions given by contem- (161) 
porary writers of the splendor of the court and the mag- A 
niflcence of the royal palaces (Azzehra with its 4300 
marble columns), border on the fabulous. Agriculture, 
horticulture, mining operations, and commerce (principally 
with Constantinople) employed a large portion of the 
population, whilst at the same time architecture, poetry, 
and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, with 
astrology, chemistry, and medicine, were cultivated with 
great zeal and success. 

After the death of the last Ommaijad, the lieutenants of 162 
the different cities established a number of petty king- B 
doms, all of which, with the exception of Saragossa, were 
overthrown by Jussof, king of Morocco (of the dynasty of 
the Morabethes), who annexed Arabian Spain to his own 
dominions. 

2. Christian Kingdoms, a. The kingdom of A stu- 163 
ria, founded by the Visigoths (who had been driven by 
the Arabians into the mountains of the North), was also 
called the kingdom of Leon, after the removal of the seat 
of government from Oviedo to that city. 

b. The Spanish March, which had been conquered 164 
by Charlemagne, was divided by his feeble successors into c 
two counties — Barcelona and Navarre. As the Counts of 
Navarre assumed the title of king, there were at this 
period two Christian kingdoms in Spain. After the death 
of King Sancho III., (Mayor), Navarre was subdivided into 
four, and soon afterwards into three provinces — Casti/Ie, 
Arragon and Navarre, which were subsequently re- 
united. At the conclusion of this period Christian Spain d 
comprised — 

a. The county of Barcelona (independent of 
France since the year 997). 

b. The kingdom of Castile and Leon, of which 
Portugal formed a portion, until the year 1095, when it 
was granted as a county by King Alfonso VI. to his son- 
in-law, Henry of Burgundy. 

c. The kingdom of Arragon and Navarre. 



78 THE MIDDLE AGES. [165—167. § 34, 35. 



B. The East. 

§ 34. The Byzantine empire under the Macedonian em- 
perors (867—1056). 

165 At the commencement of this period the empire com- 
A prehended Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, and the islands of 

the iEgean Sea, a portion of Lower Italy and Asia Minor. 
The code of Justinian was republished under the title of 
"Basilikai," byBasilius, who also reformed the financial ad- 
ministration of the empire. His successors, the philosophi- 
cal Leo VI. and Constantine V. (Porpbyrogenetus), devoted 
themselves entirely to literary and scientific pursuits, whilst 
the Arabians, Bulgarians, and Russians ravaged their domi- 
B nions without encountering any opposition. On the other 
hand, Armenia, the countries between the Black and Cas- 
pian Seas, Avith the islands of Crete and Cyprus, Northern 
Syria and Sicily, were wrested from the Arabians by the 
Emperors Nicephorus, Phocas, and John Tzimisces. Basi- 
lius II. conquered Bulgaria, and put out the eyes of 15,000 
Bulgarians. After the extinction of the Macedonian male 
line, five individuals were raised to the throne by the 
daughters of the last emperor (Zoe and Theodora). The 
last of these rulers was deposed by Isaac Comnenus, 
who was proclaimed emperor by the army. 

166 Notwithstanding its gradual decline, the Eastern empire 
c was still the most considerable among the kingdoms of the 

Christian world, its population the most numerous and 
industrious, and its capital city the largest. Until the 
period of its dissolution the people continued to reject with 
scorn the appellation of "Greeks," bestowed on them by 
the Franks, and to speak of themselves as the "Roman" 
D people. Luxury, profuse expenditure, and unmeaning 
etiquette still reigned at the imperial court. The legisla- 
tive and executive authorities were united in the person 
of the monarch ; and even the shadow of power retained 
by the senate was at last annihilated by a decree of Leo 
the Philosopher. 

§ 35. The Arabians under the Abbasides (750 — 1258). 

167 Soon after the accession of the Abbasides, the seat of 
government was transferred to Bagdad, a city on the 



167. § 35.] THE EAST. 79 

western bank of the Tigris, which had been built on (167) 
a magnificent scale by Al Mansur, and soon became the A 
capital of the commercial enterprise and civilization of the 
world. For the separation of Spain from the Caliphate, 
and establishment of a Caliphate at Cordova, see § 11. 
In the fifth Caliph, Harun al Raschid, the contemporary 
and friend of Charlemagne, and still more in his son, 
Mamun (the seventh Abbaside), the arts and sciences, as 
well as commercial and manufacturing industry, found 
enlightened and liberal protectors ; and throughout the 
empire, at that period the largest in the world, the muni- 
ficent example of the sovereign was followed by the pro- 
vincial governors. Notwithstanding these appearances ofs 
prosperity, the work of dissolution had already com- 
menced — 1. In the secession, at first of the more remote, 
and subsequently of the nearer provinces, which were 
erected into independent sovereignties by their rulers. 
Thus, for example, in Spain, the empire of the Ommai- 
jades was established at Cordova as early as the year 756; 
in Africa those of the Aglabides, Edrisides, Fatimides, 
and Morabethes ; and in Asia a multitude of dynasties, 
almost all of which gradually became subject to the Selds- 
chuks, by whom towards the end of the eleventh century 
most of the Asiatic possessions of the caliphs were united 
under one crown. Scarcely, however, had the empire of c 
the Seldschuks been established on this extensive basis, 
when it was again split (after the death of the third sultan 
in 1092) into several small sovereignties (in Iran, Kerman, 
Aleppo, Damascus, and Iconium, or Rum), nothing re- 
maining to the caliphs but the city of Bagdad, with its 
immediate neighborhood. 2. In the admission into Bag- 
dad of a Turkish body-guard of 50,000 men, who soon 
exercised uncontrolled influence, deposing and appointing 
caliphs at their pleasure. 3. In constant political and D 
religious dissensions (formidable sects of the Carmathians 
and Assassins). 4. In a succession of feeble, and at the 
same time cruel and oppressive rulers, who since the year 
955 had intrusted the affairs of government to a Turk, 
under the title of Emir a 1 O m r ah, reserving to them- 
selves only the high priesthood. 



80 THE MIDDLE AGES. [168 170. §36. 

C. The North-east of Europe. 
§ 36. Scandinavia. 

168 1. Norway and Iceland. The provinces of Norway 
A existed as independent sovereignties, each governed by its 

own petty monarch until the end of the ninth century, when 
they were united under Harald Harfagr, who founded a 
Norwegian kingdom, to which he soon afterwards added, 
by conquest, the Hebrides, Feroe, and Shetland islands, 
and the Isle of Man. The chieftains who refused to sub- 
mit to his authority, either emigrated to Western Europe 
or Sweden, or colonized the recently (in 861) discovered 
island of Iceland, where they established a fourth Scan- 
dinavian state, which was soon raised into importance by 
the commercial and manufacturing activity of its founders, 
and their extensive voyages of discovery (to Greenland, 
B North America, &c). About the year 1000 Christianity 
was introduced by Olaf I. and Olafthe Saint. At the same 
time Norway was conquered and divided by the Danes and 
Swedes. Olaf the Saint, who had made head for a long 
period against the invaders, was at length conquered and 
slain in a battle with Canute the Great ; but the independ- 
ence of Norway was re-established by his son Magnus. 

169 2. Sweden was inhabited by two principal races, the 
c Fins and Germans ; the latter being also subdivided into 

Goths and Swedes, who, (about the time when Harald 
formed the petty principalities of Norway into one king- 
dom) were placed by Erich, the son of Edmund, under one 
sovereign, who resided at Upsala, the city of the gods. 
The Christian religion, although known in Sweden as early 
as 800, was not generally received until the year 1000, 
when the repeated attempts of missionaries from Hamburg 
and Bremen, to convert the people, were at length crowned 
with success. 

170 3. Denmark. The Danish islands and Jutland had 
D each their own king, until the time of Gorm the Elder, 

king of Zealand (of the race of the Skioldings, who trace 
their descent from Odin), who overthrew the other chief- 
tains, and compelled the whole nation to recognize him as 
their sovereign, in the year 900. His male descendants 
occupied the throne until the middle of the eleventh cen- 



171. §37.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 81 

tury. For the conquest of Schleswig, by Henry I., and (170) 
the expedition of Otho the Great to Jutland, see § 23. a 
Sweyn conquered England, to avenge the murder of the 
Danes, and also Norway (in conjunction with the Swedes). 
He was succeeded in England by Canute the Great 
(1014), who also ascended the Danish throne after the 
death of his elder brother Harold (in f 1016). Under 
this sovereign Schleswig was annexed to the kingdom of 
Denmark, by a convention with the Emperor Conrad II.; 
and Norway, which had re-asserted its independence under 
Olaf the Saint, was again reduced to submission. For the B 
confirmation of the Christian religion, which had been 
established by his father, Canute founded churches, con- 
vents, and bishoprics. After his death and that of his son, 
Denmark was for a short time subject to Magnus, king of 
Norway, until its emancipation by Sweyn Estritson, who 
founded the dynasty of the Estritides (1047 — 1375). 

§ 37. Russia. 

Russia, the southern portion of which was inhabited by 171 
the Chazares, and the north and centre by Tschudish and c 
Sclavonian tribes, was visited in the year 862, on the 
invitation of the Sclavonians, by the Varogian chieftain 
Ruric (a prince of the Swedish tribe of Russ), who 
founded the grand- dukedom of Russia, with its capital 
Novgorod, from which the government was soon afterwards 
transferred to Kiev, where the family of Ruric continued 
to reign until the end of the sixteenth century (1598). 
Under his immediate successors, the Normans, in conjunc- n 
tion with the Sclavonians, following the course of the 
Dnieper, made several predatory descents on the coasts of 
the Byzantine empire ; but being unable to withstand the 
destructive Greek fire, they concluded a truce, the result 
of which was a peaceful commercial intercourse with their 
former enemies, and the introduction of Christianity into 
Russia. Vladimir the Great (988) embraced Christianity 
on his marriage with a Byzantine princess (Anna), and 
endeavored to spread the knowledge of the true faith by 
building churches and convents. The district known as 
"Red Russia " was conquered by this sovereign, who 
endeavored to introduce Byzantine civilization among his 
4* 



82 THE MIDDLE AGES. [172, 173. § 38, 39. 

A subjects. Kiev, with its 400 churches, was popularly 
spoken of as a second Constantinople. 

§ 38. Poland. 

172 The Slaves on the middle Vistula (whose capital was 
Gnesen) were called Poles. In the year 840 they chose 
for their Duke a peasant named Piast, whose family 
continued to reign for more than five centuries (until 
1370). In the year 965, one of their dukes named 
Miecislav, embraced Christianity, founded a bishopric at 
Posen, and recognized the Emperor of Germany as his 

B feudal sovereign. His son Boleslav, with the assistance 
of St. Adalbert, exterminated the remnants of heathenism, 
and founded bishoprics at Breslau, Colberg, and Cracow, 
and an archbishopric at Gnesen. This prince carried on 
several wars successfully against the Russians, united un- 
der his rule the Lechites, Poles, Masovians,Cracovvians,and 
Silesians, compelled the Pomeranians to pay tribute, and 
a short time before his death caused himself (in 1024) to 
be crowned King of Poland, by his bishops. Bolis- 
lav II. having abandoned his dominions, in consequence of 
a sentence of excommunication pronounced against him by 
Pope Gregory VII. for the murder of St. Stanislaus, bishop 
of Cracow, Poland again became a dukedom (from 1079 
to 1295). 

§ 39. Hungary. 

173 Towards the end of the ninth century (889) the Hunga- 
c rians (called also Magyars from the name of their principal 

tribe) advanced from the centre of Asia into the country of 
the Avares, under the command of a leader named Arpad, 
whose family continued to reign until the end of the thir- 
teenth century. After assisting King Arnulf against the 
Moravians, and taking possession of their country, squa- 
drons of Hungarian cavalry overran Southern Germany, 
Burgundy, and Italy, until they were driven back by Henry 
D I. and Otho I. Christianity was introduced among them 
towards the end of the tenth century, and several bishop- 
rics (nine or ten, including the archbishopric of Gran) were 
founded by Duke Stephen the Saint, who was crowned 
king by Pope Sylvester II. in the year 1000. Peter, the 
son and successor of this Stephen, having irritated the 



174. § 40.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 83 

people beyond endurance by his excesses, was deprived of (173] 
the throne, which he recovered by the aid of Henry III., a 
to whom he took the oath of fealty as a vassal of the 
empire. He was deprived of his sight by a savage faction 
(who desired the re-establishment of paganism), and died in 
prison. After thirty years of intestine confusion, tran- 
quillity was at length restored by Ladislav the Saint. 

§ 40. Religion, arts, sciences, fyc, during the second period. 

The Church. The increasing influence of the clergy 174 
was viewed by the temporal power with a jealousy, which b 
was the natural result of the vague and ill-defined position 
occupied by the two parties with reference to each other. To 
the pope belonged the privilege of crowning the emperors, 
the supreme legislative authority in ecclesiastical matters, 
and judicial power, not only over spiritual persons, but in 
questions affecting the interests of the Church, over laymen 
also (the interdict and excommunication). He also en- 
joyed the right of appointment to the highest ecclesiastical 
offices (gift of the pallium to the bishops), and the posses- 
sion of the territories conferred on the Church by Pepin. 
The number of c o n v e r t s was greatly increased, especially c 
in Germany, between the ninth and eleventh centuries. 
The monks, most of whom (since the tenth century) were 
priests, employed themselves, according to the rule of St. 
Benedict, in agriculture, various handicrafts, the instruction 
of youth, transcribing of ancient writers, the compilation of 
chronicles, &c. ; but the general profligacy and coarseness 
of the times, the introduction of lay brethren, and, more 
than all, the increasing wealth of these establishments, pro- 
duced, in many instances, a laxity of discipline utterly sub- 
versive of morality. A partial reformation was effected d 
by the establishment of a convent at Clugny in Burgundy, 
after the rule of St. Benedict, whose improvements were 
adopted in seventeen other convents. At the same time 
strenuous efforts were made by the Abbot Dunstan for the 
introduction of the same rule into the convents of England. 
Some additions to the rule of St. Benedict in the eleventh 
century occasioned the establishment of the Cistercian 
order (so named from their first convent at Citeaux near 
Dijon), out of which arose the Bernardine (founded by St. 



84 THE MIDDLE AGES. [175, 176. §40. 

(174) Bernard of Clairvaux) and the Carthusian (by St. Bruno of 
a Cologne in 1086). Cathedral chapters, the members of 
which, from the regularity of their lives, were termed 
canonici or canons, 1 were founded in 760, by Chrodogang, 
bishop of Metz, and generally established by a diet held by 
Lewis the Pious at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) in 816; but. 
as early as the eleventh century, many of them had relaxed 
the strictness of their original discipline. 

175 For the propagation of Christianity, and the develop- 
ment of the various political constitutions, see the 
history of the different countries. 

176 Art s and Sciences. During the whole of this period 
B the arts and sciences flourished not only among the Asiatic, 

but in a still higher degree among the Spanish Arabians (see 
§ 33). The Caliphs (especially Mamun) spared no ex- 
pense for the purpose of procuring Greek, Persian, Coptic, 
and Chaldaic manuscripts, which were translated into 
Arabic by societies of learned men. In all the Arabian 
provinces, particularly in Bagdad, Alexandria, Ispahan, 
Samarcand, Damascus, Kufa, Bassora, and, above all, in 
Cordova, there existed schools and universities, in which 
not only Mussulmans, but Christians and Jews, and even 
some of the Caliphs themselves, received instruction in 
philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and physical science. 

c The poetry of this period, although fostered by poetical 
contests at the courts of the Caliphs, was deficient in 
comprehensiveness, variety, and arrangement. The litera- 
ture of the Arabians is rich in legendary tales and romances 
of chivalry, the latter of which were invented by the 
writers of that country ; but their best works have all the 

d dryness of ancient chronicles. Geographical science was 
also greatly advanced by their conquests, voyages, and pil- 
grimages; but their most successful efforts were in the 
department of natural science, including every branch of 
medicine except anatomy, the practice of which was for- 
bidden by the Koran. This defect was, however, in some 
measure supplied by a diligent study of botany, and by the 
discoveries for which chemistry was indebted to the per- 
severing but fruitless attempts of the alchemists to produce 
the philosophers' stone. In philosophy and physics they 

1 [From the Greek word, Kavdov, a rule.] 



176. §40.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 85 

never advanced beyond the principles of Aristotle, which (176) 
were often misunderstood. Algebra, trigonometry, and A 
astronomy were simplified, and enriched with new dis- 
coveries : astrology was also highly esteemed. The Ara- 
bian school of architecture, the characteristics of which were 
lightness and profuse ornament, produced several magnifi- 
cent works, especially in Spain. In Persia also poetry 
flourished under the Ghasnavides and Seldschuks. The 
most renowned of the Persian epic poets, Firdusi, who 
celebrated in his verses the heroic deeds of the Persian 
kings, lived at the court of Ghasna about a.d. 1000. In b 
the Byzantine empire, Greek literature, which had been 
neglected during the iconoclastic controversy, began again 
to be cultivated in the ninth century, but with little result 
beyond the publication of extracts (by Photius and Con- 
stantinus Porphyrogenetus) from the ancient writers. His- 
torical writing was almost entirely limited to the compilation 
of dry chronicles. Suidas in his grammatical and historical 
Lexicon, and the author of the Etymologicum Magnum, 
exhibit an intimate acqaintance with the works of classical 
writers. In sculpture and painting, simplicity and good 
taste were rapidly disappearing before a love of the elabo- 
rate and minute. In the West, learning was exclusively c 
in the hands of the clergy, who studied in the renowned 
convents and capitular schools of St. Gall, Corvey, Fulda, 
Paderborn, and Hildesheim, as well as at Paris and in 
Normandy. Several historical works, all in the Latin 
language, were published by the German clergy ; Witte- 
hind (history of the Saxons), Dithmar (History of the 
Saxon Emperors, 876 to 1018), Wippo(Life of Conrad II.), 
Hermannus Contractus (Chronicles), Lambert of Aschaffen- 
burg (Annals). The scholastic philosophy taught in the d 
church schools, especially at Paris, consisted in the adapta- 
tion of the dialectics of Aristotle to the discussion of theo- 
logical theses. The most distinguished professors of this 
philosophy and of the mysticism of the Middle Ages were 
Joh. Scotus Erigena (at the court of Charles the Bald), 
and two archbishops of Canterbury, Lanfranc and An- 
selm. The most renowned school of jurisprudence was 
at Bologna, and of medicine at Salerno. The study of 
mathematical science was promoted in France by Gerbert, 
archbishopof Rheims (afterwards Pope Sylvester II.), who 
had received his education in Moorish Spain. Natural 



86 THE MIDDLE AGES. [177. §40. 

(176) philosophy was rather speculative than experimental ; 

A hence the study of astrology, magic and alchemy. Latin 
ceased to be a living tongue in the ninth century, the 
Roman and German languages having now assumed a 
settled form. The earliest specimens of German literature 
are the Ludwigslied (Lay of Lewis), Otfried's Christ (a 
harmony of the Gospels in rhyme), and Notker's transla- 
tion of the Psalms. — Among the arts, architecture produced 
the most considerable works in a mixed Lombardo-Byzan- 
tine style, e. g. in the noble Minsters at Bamberg, Worms, 

B Mainz, Spiers, &c. Baronial castles were first built in 
the eleventh century (the Wartburg in 1067). — Sculpture 
and painting seem to have been at the lowest ebb in this 
century, with the exception of painting on glass, which had 
become very general. Music made considerable progress, 
in consequence of the invention of a new system of notes, 
by Guido of Arezzo ; and of time, by Franco of Cologne. 
177 Trade and manufacturing industry flourished 

c principally in the Arabian countries, especially in Spain 
(compare § 33), where they found in the Abbasides patrons 
no less zealous than the Ommaijades had been at an 
earlier period. The commerceof Byzantium was gradually 
transferred to the Italian sea-ports of Venice, Pisa, Genoa, 
and Amalfi, which had already established themselves as 
emporia, whilst the trade of the other western ports was 
still limited to the mere supply of the daily wants of the 
inhabitants. Indian and Levantine wares were brought 

D into Germany up the Danube from Constantinople. Re- 
gensburg [Ratisbon], at that period the most populous and 
important city of Germany, was the emporium of the 
commerce not only between the East and West, but also 
between the North and South, that is to say, between 
Poland, Prussia, and Russia on the one side, and Italy on 
the other. The cities of the South of France, especially 
Marseilles, traded for the most part to the Levant ; and 
those of the North (as well as of Friesland and the North of 
Germany) to England. Commercial relations also existed 
between the Sclavonians on the Elbe and Baltic, and the 
neighboring countries. Manufacturing industry was pro- 
moted by the rapid increase in the number of cities, the 
establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver 
mines in the Hartz mountains, in the reign of Otho the 
Gi'eat. 



178. §41.] THE CRUSADES. 87 



Third Period. 

AGE OF THE CRUSADES (1096—1273). 

§41. The Crusades (1096—1273). 

The First Crusade (1696—1100). 

For many years it had been the practice of Christians 178 
from all parts of the Roman empire, to perform pilgrim- A 
ages to the Holy Sepulchre, where a magnificent church 
had been erected by Constantine the Great. The number 
of those who visited Jerusalem had gone on steadily in- 
creasing, even after the occupation of the city by the 
Arabians (636) ; but under the Fatimides and Seldschuks 
a system of persecution was carried on against the Chris- 
tians, who were compelled by the Turks to pay a heavy 
tax for the privilege of visiting the Holy City. Instead, B 
however, of diminishing the number of pilgrims, the effect 
of this intolerant measure was to excite throughout Chris- 
tendom a general desire to make Palestine again a 
Christian kingdom. The complaints of the Eastern 
Christians were seconded by Peter of Amiens, or Peter 
the Hermit, as he is generally called, who had recently 
returned from the Holy Land, and was now traversing 
Italy, France, and Germany, and every where describing 
the atrocities of which he had himself been an eye-witness. 
Councils of the Church were also held at Piacenza and c 
Clermont, at which Pope Urban II. exhorted the people to 
assist in the good work of delivering Jerusalem out of the 
hands of the unbelievers. In the Spring of 1096, the 
crusade was commenced by detached bands of adventurers 
from France, Italy, and Lorraine, who penetrated as far as 
Hungary and Bulgaria, where most of them were cut to 
pieces by the inhabitants. The remainder, under Peter 
the Hermit and Walter of Pexeijo, a needy adventurer, 
surnamed in derision the Lord of Lackland (Habenichts), 



88 THE MIDDLE AGES. [179. §41. 

(178) advanced as far as Nicsea, where their army was well nigh 

A annihilated. On the 15th of August, 1096, an expedition 
on a larger scale, and under more favorable auspices, was 
undertaken by Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of Lower 
Lorraine, his brother Baldwin, Count Robert of Normandy 
(brother of the King of England), Robert, count of Flan- 
ders, Raymond, count of Toulouse, Boemund, prince of 
Tarento, and his nephew Tancred. The grand army, the 
several divisions of which reached Asia Minor by different 
routes, numbered, we are told, more than half a million of 

B men. The city of Nicsea was first attacked and carried 
by storm. Then the crusaders took Edessa, and conferred 
the sovereignty of that district on Baldwin of Lorraine. 
Antiochia, which had surrendered after a siege of nine 
months, was on the eve of falling again into the hands of 
the Turks, when the besieged, re-assured, it is said, by the 
discovery of the sacred lance, 1 made a sally from the gates, 
dispersed the Turkish army, and established a Christian 

C principality under Boemund of Tarento. The army of the 
crusaders, reduced to 20,000 infantry and 1500 cavalry, at 
last reached Jerusalem, which, a few years before (in 1095) 
had been re-conquered by the Fatimides. After closely 
investing the city for thirty-nine days, the assailants scaled 
the walls on the 15th of July, 1099, and put the infidels to 
death without mercy. Godfrey de Bouillon, as the 
best and bravest of their leaders, was proclaimed King of 
Jerusalem, but refused to accept any higher title than that 
of duke. 
179 A Christian state was also founded at Tripolis, by Ray- 

D mond of Toulouse. An army of 140,000 men was collected 
for the re-conquest of Palestine, by the Caliph of Egypt, 
who was drawn into an ambuscade near Ascalon, and 
defeated by Godfrey de Bouillon, with only 20,000 men. 
In the year 1100 Godfrey died, in consequence of the 
fatigues which he had undergone during the siege, and was 
succeeded by his brother Baldwin I., prince of Edessa, 
who accepted the title of king, and being supported by the 
free states of Italy, Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, added the 
maritime cities of Csesarea, Tripolis, Berytus, and Sidon 
to the kingdom of Jerusalem, which at its first establish- 

[' The spear, according to tradition, with which the side of our 
Blessed Saviour was pierced.] 



180 182. §41.] THE CRUSADES. 89 

ment consisted merely of the capital with the city of (179) 
Joppa, and about twenty hamlets. Division of the king- A 
dom into — 1. the crown-lands; 2. the county of Tri- 
polis; 3. the principality of Antiochia; 4. the county of 
Edessa. 



The Second Crusade (1147—1149). 

After repeated attempts on the part of the Egyptian 180 
caliphs to regain possession of the Holy Land, Edessa was b 
taken by storm, during the minority of Baldwin III., and 
its inhabitants put to the sword, or sold as slaves. On 
receiving intelligence of this disaster, Bernard, abbot of 
Clairvaux, persuaded the emperor, Conrad III., and 
Louis VII., king of France, to undertake a second cru- 
sade. The two armies marched through Hungary with 
little loss, and entered the Byzantine dominions; but soon 
afterwards the German division was abandoned by its 
Greek guides near Iconium, and, after suffering severely 
from want of provisions, was attacked by the forces of the 
Sultan of Iconium so fiercely, that scarcely a tenth part 
survived the engagement. After sustaining considerable c 
loss, some joined Conrad at Jerusalem, and the two sove- 
reigns proceeded to lay siege to Damascus; but, failing in 
their attempt, they abandoned the Holy Land, and re- 
turned to their own dominions. 



The Third Crusade (1189—1193). 

The dynasty of the Fatimides in Egypt was sustained 181 
(1163) by the generals of Nureddin, sultan of Damascus, o 
who was soon succeeded by his nephew Salad in. This 
monarch revived the claims of Egypt to Syria and Pales- 
tine, defeated the Christians near Damascus, took their 
king, Guy de Lusignan, prisoner, and entering Jerusalem 
in triumph, put an end to the kingdom which had lasted 
eighty-eight years. 

The loss of the Holy City occasioned the third crusade, 182 
which was undertaken by the emperor, Frederic I. (Bar- 
barossa), now in his seventieth year, Philip Augustus, king 
of France, and Richard Cceur de Lion of England, with the 



90 THE MIDDLE AGES. [183, 184. §41. 

(182) flower of their chivalry. Barbarossa, whose army was the 
A first in the field, entered Asia Minor, and, having defeated 
the Sultan of Iconium, stormed that city, but soon after- 
wards was drowned in the river Calycadnos. 
183 The remains of his army, the ranks of which were daily 
thinned by pestilence and desertion, at last reached Accon, 
Acra, or Ptolemais (St. Jean d'Acre), where their com- 
mander, Duke Frederick of Swabia, son of the late empe- 
ror, instituted the order of Teutonic Knights, and soon 
afterwards died of the plague, during the siege of the city, 
Bin the year 1191. Soon after his death the place was 
surrendered to the kings of France and England. It was 
oil this occasion that Richard Cceur de Lion insulted 
Leopold, duke of Austria, by trampling on his banner. 
Philip and Richard having disagreed respecting the par- 
tition of their conquests, and the mode of carrying on the 
war, the former returned to France; and Richard, after 
raising the siege of Joppa, concluded an armistice with 
Saladin, by the terms of which the whole line of coast from 
Joppa to Accon remained in the hands of the Christians, 
free access to the holy places being also secured to them, 
c The island of Cyprus, which had been conquered by 
Richard, was sold by him to Guy, the last king of Jeru- 
salem: hence the kingdom of Cyprus (to the year 1480). 
On his return from Palestine, Richard was seized by 
Leopold VI. of Austria, and delivered up to the emperor, 
Henry VI., by whom he was released after two years' 
imprisonment, on payment of a ransom of 150,000 marks. 



The (so-named) Fourth Crusade (1202—1204). 

184 Fresh bands of crusaders were sent out by the emperor, 
d Henry VI., and, having reached Syria by the route of 
Constantinople, regained possession of Sidon, Tyre, and 
Berytus. Meanwhile the emperor himself died in Sicily. 
The (so-called) fourth crusade was undertaken by the 
Franks and Venetians, whose forces, instead of advancing 
into Palestine, remained at Byzantium, for the purpose of 
restoring the emperor, Isaac Angel us, who had been de- 
posed and blinded by his brother Alexius. Finding, how- 
ever that the promises made on behalf of his father by 



185. §41.] THE CRUSADES. 91 

Alexius the younger (son of the Emperor Isaac), were not (184) 
likely to be fulfilled (Isaac having died of grief and terror a 
during an insurrection of the Greeks), the French and 
Venetians a second time took possession of Constantinople, 
chose Baldwin, count of Flanders and Hennegau, for their 
emperor, and thus founded the Latin Empire (1204 — 
1261). Baldwin received only a fourth part of the empire, 
with the title and authority of feudal sovereign over the 
rest, which was divided among the Venetians, who ob- 
tained possession of the shores of the Adriatic, iEgean, and 
Black Seas, together with most of the Greek islands; and 
the French and Lombard nobles, one of whom, the Mar- 
quis of Montferrat, received for his share the whole of 
Macedonia and a portion of Greece, which were named the 
kingdom of Thessalonica. A Greek empire was soon after- b 
wards established at Nicsea by Theodore Lascaris (one 
of the family of the Comneni), whilst at the same time 
another Byzantine prince reigned independently, with the 
title of emperor, at Trebizond. In the year 1261, the 
Emperor of Nicsea, Michael Palseologus (with the assist- 
ance of the Genoese, who were jealous of the Venetians), 
took Constantinople, and put an end to the Latin empire. 

The Crusade of Frederic II. (1228). 

The attempts of Pope Innocent III. to regain Palestine, 185 
by means of a general crusade, were utterly unsuccessful, c 
The childi'en's crusade in 1213, and the expedition to 
Syria of Andrew II., king of Hungary, terminated in dis- 
appointment and disgrace, whilst the advantage obtained 
by the titular King of Jerusalem (John of Brienne), through 
the capture of Damietta, was again lost by the surrender 
of that fortress to the infidels in the year 1221. One 
receiving intelligence of this calamity, Pope Honorius III. 
vehemently urged on the emperor, Frederic II., the neces- 
sity of fulfilling the promise which he had made at his 
accession, and again at his coronation; but so many diffi- 
culties intervened, that the commencement of the crusade 
was deferred until the year 1227. Scarcely had the empe- 
ror assembled his forces, when sickness compelled him 
again to defer the expedition ; and the pope (Gregory IX.), 
who believed this to be a mere pretext, at once published 



92 THE MIDDLE AGES. [186—188. §41. 

(185) the sentence of excommunication against him. In the year 

a 1258, Frederic visited Palestine, and placed on his own 

head the crown of Jerusalem, which had been ceded to 

him, together with the surrounding territory as far as Tyre, 

by Camel, sultan of Egypt. 

The Sixth Crusade (1248). 

186 A violation of the armistice by some pilgrims, under the 
B command of the King of Navarre, again occasioned the 

loss of Jerusalem in 1239; and five years later (1244) the 
city was taken from the Turks by the Carizmians, who had 
been driven out of Khorassan by the Monguls. About 
this time Louis IX., king of France, commonly called 
St. Louis, undertook his crusade in fulfilment of a vow which 
he had made during a severe illness, and landing in Egypt, 
the possession of which seemed an indispensable prelude 
to an attempt on the Holy Land, took Damietta, and 
c defeated the Turks. Advancing towards Cairo, he was 
taken prisoner, with his whole army ; and after a long nego- 
tiation was at length released, on condition of evacuating 
Damietta, and paying a ransom of 800,000 pieces of gold. 
After his liberation, Louis still lingered in Accon until the 
year 1254, and fortified the sea-ports of Palestine. 

The Seventh Crusade (1270). 

187 The possessions of the Christians in the East having 
D fallen one by one into the hands of the Mamelukes, who 

had overthrown the dynasty of Saladin, and raised them- 
selves to the rank of sultans of Egypt (1254 — 1517), 
Louis undertook another crusade, and at the instance of 
his brothei", Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, landed at 
Tunis, where a pestilence carried off himself and the 
greater part of his army. In the year 1291, Accon, the 
last of the Christian possessions in Palestine, fell into the 
hands of the Mamelukes. 



Results of the Crusades. 

A. Political Consquences. 

188 1. To the Hierarchy, a. The exaltation of the papal 
power was the natural consequence of a system in which 



189, 190. §41.] RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 93 

the pope appeared as the originator of plans, which the (188) 
temporal sovereigns of Europe were called on to execute. A 
b. The authority of the pope over the clergy was also aug- 
mented by the opportunities which the crusades afforded 
him of appointing legates, who exercised, as representatives 
of the Holy See, considerable influence over the arch- 
bishops and bishops, and of placing episcopal vicars in the 
dioceses during the absence of the bishops, c. The wealth 
of the clergy was greatly increased by the opportunities 
afforded to churches and convents of purchasing, at a cheap 
rate, the estates of those who were anxious to join the 
crusades. 

2. To the Sovereigns of Europe. Increase in the num- 189 
ber of estates belonging immediately to the crown, occa- b - 
sioned by the falling in of several fiefs, especially in France 
under Philip II. — Another result of the wars against the 
infidels, was the extension in European countries of the 
dominions of Christian sovereigns (e. g. in Spain), and the 
establishment (e.g. in Prussia) of new Christian states. 

3. To the Nobility, the consequences of the crusades 190 
were most important, a. The spirit of aristocracy de- c 
veloped itself in the formation of the knightly character, 
which was a compound of religious enthusiasm, reckless 
courage, and love of adventure in the service of religion 

or of beauty, b. The distinctive forms of nobility were 
created by the adoption of family names and coats of arms, 
and the institution of degrees of chivalry (pages, esquires, 
knights), c. Origin of the religious orders ofknight-D 
hood. aa. The Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of St. 
John. Some merchants from Amalfi had founded at Jeru- 
salem a convent and hospital for sick pilgrims. The 
monks of this institution, which was dedicated to St. John, 
were afterwards sworn to do battle against the infidels, and 
were divided into three classes, viz. chaplains, who con- 
ducted the public worship; knights, who bore arms; and 
lay-brethren, on whom devolved the care of the sick and . 
poor. This order spread over the whole of Europe, and 
was divided into eight "tongues," according to the lan- 
guages of the different states in which it was established. 
The president had at first the title of " Master," and after- 
wards of "Grand Master." After the loss of Palestine, 
the Knights Hospitallers established themselves at Cyprus, 



94 THE MIDDLE AGES. [1.91 • §41. 

(190) and in the year 1309 took possession of Rhodes (hence 

A their title of Knights of Rhodes), which they held against the 
Turks until 1522, when they were driven from it by 
Soliman. In 1530, they were presented by the emperor, 
Charles V., with Malta, Gozzo, and Comino (hence their 
title of Knights of Malta), on condition of their waging 
perpetual war against infidels and pirates. Malta was 

B taken from them by Napoleon, in the year 1798. bb. The 
Knights Templars. The nucleus of this order existed as 
early as the year 1118, in an association of nine French 
knights, for the protection of pilgrims on the high roads. 
Their name was derived from their residence near the site 
of Solomon's temple, in a building granted to them by 
Baldwin II. After the loss of the Holy Land, most of the 
Templars sought an asylum in France, where they were 
cruelly put to death by Philip IV. (1312), after a mock 
trial on charges substantiated by no better evidence than 

c confessions extorted from them by the rack. cc. The 
Teutonic Order was founded during the siege of Accon (in 
1190) by a number of German knights and pilgrims, who 
formed an association for the relief of persons attacked by 
a pestilential disease, which at that time raged in the Ger- 
man camp. The knights were exclusively Germans. Their 
president had the title of Teutonic Master, or Grand 
Master. Their residence was removed from Jerusalem to 
Venice by their fourth grand master, the renowned Her- 
man of Salza, who undertook the conversion of the heathen 
Prussians. After a struggle, which lasted fifty-three years, 
Herman obtained possession of Prussia, and transferred his 

d residence from Venice to Marienburg in 1309. The es- 
tablishment of these orders contributed essentially to the 
formation and consolidation of an aristocracy, and prepared 
the way for the institution of similar orders of knighthood 
in Europe. In Palestine they supplied the place of astand- 
ing army, and in the struggles between the ecclesiastical 
and temporal powers, rendered essential service to the par- 
ty which had the good fortune to secure their adherence. 
191 4. To the Burgher Order. Guilds, or fraternities of 
Burghers, were established, which obtained various privi- 
leges, generally by purchase, when their lords were in want 
of money. The growth and prosperity of their cities were 
promoted by the absence of the nobles, as well as by the 
increasing activity displayed in commercial pursuits. 



192 194. §41.] RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 95 

5. To the peasant order. The necessity which existed of (191) 
employing freemen in the cultivation of those farms from A 
which the serfs had been withdrawn, to supply the ranks of 
the crusaders, occasioned a diminution in the number of 
vassals, and the gradual establishment of a free peasantry. 



B. Consequences to Trade and Manufactures. 

1. To maritime enterprise. Important commercial privi- 192 
leges were acquired by the Venetians, and to a certain b 
extent by the Genoese and Pisans, in all the principal cities 

of the Byzantine empire, as well as of Syria and Palestine. 
During the fourth crusade, the Venetians obtained possession 
of most of the seaports and islands of the empire, where 
they established colonies ; the command of the Black Sea 
securing to their merchants a monopoly of the northern 
trade, and a considerable share in that of Asia. On the c 
re-establishment of the Byzantine government at Constan- 
tinople, the Venetians were expelled from the capital, their 
place being occupied by the Genoese ; but this disaster was 
comparatively of little importance, as they were at the same 
time enabled to conclude commercial treaties with the 
Saracens, by which the iEgypto-Indian trade, and a share 
in- the commerce carried on by caravans in the interior of 
Africa, were secured to them, together with permission 
to establish settlements on the northern coast of that pe- 
ninsula. 

2. To the overland trade. The commerce of the inte- 193 
rior, which in former days had been for the most part D 
confined to the beaten route from Constantinople to Ger- 
many, along the banks of the Danube by Vienna and Ra- 
tisbon, was diverted into various other channels during the 
period of the crusades: a. from the seaports of Italy into 
Germany : b. from the ports of the South of France into 
the interior of that country, as well as into Brabant and . 
Flanders. It was not, however, until the following period, 
that this commercial intercourse was fully developed. 

3. To manufacturing industry. Extension to Europe 194 
(to the South in the first instance) of the manufacture of 
silk and cotton stuffs, and the production of sugar, together 
with a more active exportation of European produce to 



96 THE MIDDLE AGES. [195, 196. §42. 

(194) Greece and the East. Increase of luxury in the cities, a 
A consequence of their manufacturing prosperity. 

C. To the Sciences. 

195 The mass of geographical information was considerably 
augmented by the knowledge of eastern lands, acquired 
through the crusaders, as well as by the accounts of mis- 
sionaries (since the thirteenth century), and the travels of 
Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant; but the defective state 
of mathematical science occasioned grievous mistakes re- 

B specting the position of different countries. Historical 
works, for which there was abundant material, began now 
to be written (after the example of the Orientals) in the 
vernacular tongue. Natural history and medicine were 
more generally studied. 

A. The West. ■ 

§ 42. The German empire under Lothar the Saxon. 
(1125—1137.) 

196 Henry V. had nominated as his successors the two sons 
c of his sister Agnes, Frederick and Conrad of Hohenstaufen ; 

but, under the influence of the Archbishop of Mainz, the 
choice of the electors fell on Lothar [Lothaire] duke of 
Saxony, who agreed, as the condition of his election, that 
the Church should enjoy the undisputed right of appointing 
her own officers, and that the investiture of bishops by the 
emperor should not take place until after their consecra- 
tion. The vacant dukedom of Saxony, and the hand of 
his daughter, were conferred by Lothar on Henry the Proud, 
duke of Bavaria (of the house of Welf [Guelph]), by whose 
aid he defeated Frederick and Conrad of Hohenstaufen, 
and compelled the latter to renounce the title of King of 
d Germany. Lothar made two journeys to Rome. On the 
first occasion he restored Pope Innocent II., who had been 
expelled from Rome by his rival, Anaclete II., and re- 
ceived the imperial crown from his hands, together with a 
grant of the lands of Matilda, margravine of Tuscany, to 
be held as a fief of the Holy See. On the second, he 
expelled Roger II. from Apulia and Calabria ; but no 
sooner had he quitted Italy, than the exiled king returned 
to his dominions. 



197. § 42.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 



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98 THE MIDDLE AGES. [198,199. §43. 



§ 43. The German empire under the Hohenstaufen. 
(1138—1254.) 

1. Conrad III. (1138—1152.) 

198 After Lothar's death, the claims of his unpopular son-in- 
A law, Henry the Proud, who had already possessed himself 

of the crown jewels, were set aside by the electors, whose 
choice fell on a Hohenstaufen, Conrad, duke of Franconia. 
Henry, on being required to resign one of his two duke- 
doms, renounced his allegiance, and was placed under the 
ban of the empire; his dukedom of Bavaria being conferred 
on Leopold, margrave of Austria (half-brother of Con- 
rad III.); and Saxony on Albert the Bear (grandson of 
Duke Magnus of Saxony). After Henry's death, the war 
was carried on by his brother Guelph (his son, Henry the 
B Lion, being still a mere child). The city of Weinsburg, in 
which Guelph had shut himself up, was taken after a long 
siege (in 1140), and the livesof the garrison saved through 
the fidelity of their wives : hence the name of " Weiber- 
treue" (woman's fidelity), which the hill still retains. A 
treaty was concluded, by which Saxony was restored to 
Henry the Lion. Conrad was the first king, since Otho 
the Great, on whose head the imperial crown was not 
placed by the pope. — For his crusade, see page 89. 

2, Frederick I., Barbarossa (Red-beard). 
(1152—1190.) 

199 Conrad was succeeded by his nephew, his son being still 
c a child. Frederick, who was a Hohenstaufen, Or Ghibel- 

line, on the side of his father, and a Guelph on that of his 
mother, endeavored to reconcile the two houses ; and with 
that view restored Bavaria to Henry the Lion (who had 
accompanied him in his first Italian campaign) ; the Mar- 
grave of Austria being indemnified by the elevation of his 
marquisate to the rank of an independent dukedom, here- 
ditary in the female as well as the male line. His great 
object was to re-establish the imperial authority, which, in 
Italy especially, had sunk into insignificance during the 
reigns of his predecessors. For this purpose he visited 
Italy six times. 



200,201. §43.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 99 

First Italian campaign (1154). The city of Milan 200 
having declared itself independent, Henry addressed a a 
letter of remonstrance to the magistrates, which was torn 
in pieces, and thrown into the face of his messenger. On 
entering Italy for the first time, Frederick, although un- 
prepared to attack Milan, was able to reduce three other 
rebellious towns (Asti, Chieri, and Tortona). After their 
surrender, he assumed the iron crown of Italy in the city 
of Pavia, and marched at once to Rome, whither he had 
been summoned by Pope Adrian IV., whose subjects had 
been persuaded by Arnold of Brescia to throw off the 
papal yoke, and establish a senate with sovereign authority, 
as in days of yore. Arnold was taken prisoner by Frede- b 
rick, delivered up to the prefect of the city, and hung. 
His body was burnt, and the ashes thrown into the Tiber 
(1155). Frederick now received the imperial crown from 
the hands of the pope, whose stirrup he held previously to 
the ceremony. A terrible disease, which soon afterwards 
broke out among his troops, compelled Frederick to return 
to Germany, where he re- united the Burgundian and Ger- 
man kingdoms by a marriage with Beatrice, heiress of 
Burgundy, compelled the Poles again to pay tribute, and 
elevated the Duke of Bohemia to the rank of king. 

In his second Italian campaign (1158 — 1162), Frederick 201 
placed Milan (which had been perseveringly enlarging its c 
territories) under the ban of the empire, and laid siege to 
the city. After sustaining great hardships, the Milanese 
signed a capitulation, one of the principal conditions of 
which was, that the election of their magistrates should 
thenceforward be subject to the emperor's approval. At 
a diet held on the Roncalian plain near Piacenza, the rela- 
tions of Italy to the emperor were settled On terms exceed- 
ingly advantageous to the latter. Even the Milanese were d 
willingto accept of the new constitution, although it deprived 
them of the right secured to them by the capitulation of 
electing their own magistrates, who were thenceforth to 
be nominated by the emperor himself. An attempt on the 
part of the citizens of Milan to re-assert this right, occa- 
sioned a fresh war. After a siege of two years, Milan 
surrendered unconditionally; the fortifications of the city 
were dismantled, and the inhabitants, after sustaining fresh 
humiliations, were compelled to establish themselves in 



100 THE MIDDLE AGES. [202—205. §43. 

(201) four separate townships. A double election having been 
A made by the college of cardinals, Victor IV., and after his 
death Paschal III., were recognized by Frederick and the 
bishops immediately under his influence, in opposition to 
Alexander III., who was supported by a large majority of 
the priesthood. 

202 In his third visit to Italy (1163) without an army, 
Frederick, who had been excommunicated by Pope Alex- 
ander III., endeavored to allay the discontent occasioned 
by the severity of his functionaries. 

203 In his fourth Italian campaign (1166 — 1163) he com- 
b pelled the Romans to receive Paschal III. in the place of 

Alexander III., who had fled from the city. Frederick 
and his consort were crowned by the new pope ; but soon 
afterwards a frightful pestilence well-nigh annihilated his 
army, and compelled him to re-cross the Alps in disguise, 
and almost alone. The Lombard cities, being unable to 
obtain redress for the cruelties perpetrated by the imperial 
governors, entered into a confederacy, re-established the 
exiled Milanese in Milan, and built a fortress, to which, 
in defiance of the emperor, they gave the name of Alex- 
andria. 

204 In his fifth campaign (1174 — 1178) he was abandoned 
c by Henry the Lion during the siege of Alexandria, and in 

consequence of this defection was compelled, after sustain- 
ing a defeat at Legnano on the Ticino(1176) to conclude 
(at Venice) a peace with Alexander III., and an armistice 
with the Lombards for six years ; at ihe expiration of which 
a formal peace was concluded at Constance. By this 
new treaty the right was confirmed to the emperor of 
appointing magistrates and levying taxes ; the cities being 
permitted to retain their own laws and institutions, and to 
continue members of the confederacy which they had 
formed a few years previously. 

205 On his return to Germany, Frederick published the ban 
D of the empire against Henry the Lion, (who had neglected 

to appear after being five times cited), gave Bavaria to the 
Count Palatine Otho of Wittelsbach, and West Saxony to 
the Archbishop of Cologne, conferred the dignity of Duke 
of Saxony on Count Bernard of Anhalt, and having sub- 
dued Henry after a war of two years, released him from 
the ban, and restored his family estates of Brunswick and 



205, 207. § 43.] the German empire. 101 

Luneburg, on condition of his absenting himself from (205) 
Germany for three years. Henry acceded to these terms, a 
and sought an asylum at the court of his father-in-law, 
Henry II. king of England. 

After holding a brilliant diet at Mainz (1184), at which 206 
his two eldest sons, Henry and Frederick, were admitted to 
the degree of knighthood, Frederick appearedybr the sixth 
time in Italy, where he was received with enthusiasm, and 
celebrated in the city of Milan, which had been lately 
rebuilt, the marriage of his eldest son, the Roman King 
Henry, with Constance, daughter of Roger II., and heiress 
of the kingdom of Apulia and Sicily, — For an account of 
his crusade and death, see pages 89, 90. 

3. Henry VI. (1190—1197). 

Henry, who had governed the empire as regent, during 207 
the absence of his father in the Holy Land, hastened into b 
Italy on receiving intelligence of the death of William II. . 
of Sicily, for the purpose of securing the birthright of his 
consort ; but the Sicilians, who hated the Germans, had 
already placed on the throne Count Tancred, an illegiti- 
mate scion of the Norman royal house. Henry, after 
receiving the imperial crown at Rome, advanced by forced 
marches to Naples, but was soon compelled by the sick- 
liness of his troops, and the intelligence which reached him 
of his brother's death, to return to Germany. The ransom c 
of Richard Cceur de Lion (see page 90), afforded him the 
means of undertaking a second campaign to Italy, where 
all opposition had ceased since the death of Tancred. At 
Palermo, the crown of Sicily was added to the four which 
he already possessed. The discovery of an unsuccessful 
conspiracy furnished the emperor with a pretext for in- 
flicting the most terrible punishments on his enemies. 
Tancred's widow and daughters were thrown into prison, D 
his son William deprived of his eyes, and archbishops, 
bishops, counts, and nobles, put to death by tortures too 
horrible to relate. These acts of cruelty, together with 
his treatment of Richard Cceur de Lion, provoked the 
pope (Coslestine III.) to pronounce sentence of excommu- 
nication on Henry. A plan which he had long cherished, 
of making the imperial dignity hereditary in his family, 
was rendered abortive by the opposition of the nobility, 



102 THE MIDDLE AGES. [208—210. §43. 

(207) especially of the higher orders of the clergy. The follow- 
A ing year, during his preparations for the conquest of the 
Byzantine empire, Henry suddenly expired at Messina, to 
the great delight of all the Italians. 

208 Henry the Lion had returned from England to Ger- 
many, where he found many adherents; but all his attempts 
to recover his former possessions ended in disappointment. 
He died at Brunswick, in the year 1195. 

4. Philip of Swabia (1198—1208). 
Otho IV. (1198—1215.) 

209 After Henry's death, the German nobles were divided into 
B two parties : that of the Hohenstaufen, which supported 

Henry's youngest brother, Philip of Swabia (Henry's 
son Frederick being scarcely three years old when his father 
died) ; and the Guelphic, which chose Otho, second son of 
Henry the Lion. Innocent 111.(1198 — 1216), to whose 
arbitration the disputed election was referred, decided in 
favor of Otho. Philip, who had conferred the hereditary 
sovereignty of Bohemia on Ottocar( 1198), and had already 
obtained some advantages over Otho, and entered into 
negotiations with the pope, was murdered at Bamberg, in 
the year 1208, by the Count Palatine Otho of Wittels- 
bach, to whom he had promised one of his daughters in 
marriage, and neglected to fulfil the engagement. 
110 The first act of Otho's reign, after the death of his rival, 
c was to place Otho of Wittelsbach under the ban of the 
empire, and command his assassination. After effecting a 
reconciliation with the house of Hohenstaufen by means of 
a marriage with Beatrice, the youngest daughter of Philip 
of Swabia, Otho visited Rome, and received the Italian and 
imperial crowns ; but soon afterwards having involved 
himself in a dispute with Pope Innocent III., through an 
attempt to re-establish the imperial authority in Italy, he 
D conquered Apulia, and attacked the King of Sicily, who 
happened to be the pope's ward. Innocent immediately 
excommunicated him, and invited the German nobles to 
confirm their former election of Frederick, the only sur- 
viving prince of the house of Hohenstaufen, who was 
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215. Otho, who pre- 
viously to this event had been defeated by the French king, 



211. §43.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 103 

Philip Augustus, at Bovines, in Flanders (where he was (210) 
assisted by his ally, King John of England), was compelled A 
to retire to his hereditary estate of Brunswick, where he 
died (at Harzburg) in 1218. 

5. Frederick II. (1215—1250). 

On his accession, Frederick had promised the pope, 211 
(1) that thenceforward the German and Sicilian crowns 
should be disunited ; and (2) that he would undertake a 
crusade. Both these engagements were violated ; the first 
by his nominating his son Henry (to whom he had resigned 
the kingdom of Sicily) to be his successor on the German 
throne, and causing him to be crowned Roman king in 1222 ; 
and the second (which he had renewed at his coronation), 
by his deferring the crusade until the year 1227, the inter- 
vening time being occupied in arranging the affairs of his 
hereditary estates. On his return from Palestine, Frede- b 
rick found Apulia in the occupation of the papal troops ; 
and having re-conquered that province, effected a recon- 
ciliation with the pope, through the intervention 'of Her- 
man of Salza, grand master of the Teutonic order, and 
thoroughly reformed the legal code of his hereditary domi- 
nions, he re-visited Germany, where his son Henry had 
raised the standard of rebellion during his absence. Henry 
was taken, solemnly disinherited at Mainz, and thrown into 
prison, where he remained until his death in 1242. At c 
the same diet, Frederick conferred on Otho [the Child] the 
allodes of his father, to be held thenceforward as the here- 
ditary duchy of Brunswick Liineburg, with succession in 
the female as well as the male line. After proclaiming a 
general peace throughout Germany, the emperor revisited 
Italy, for the purpose of chastising those Lombard cities 
which had taken part with his eldest son, leaving the 
second, Conrad, to administer the affairs of the kingdom 
during his absence. Having reduced all the cities to sub- D 
mission with the exception of four, and obtained a decisive 
victory at Cortenuova (1237) by the aid of his general, 
Ezzelino Romano, Frederick summoned the Milanese to 
surrender at discretion, but was prevented from attaining 
his object, by a misunderstanding with Pope Gregory IX., 
in consequence of the elevation of the emperor's natural 



104 THE MIDDLE AGES. [212 214. §43. 

(211) son, Enzio, to the throne of Sardinia, of which the sove- 
a reignty was claimed by the holy see, as a part of St. 
Peter's patrimony. 

212 Sentence of excommunication was passed on Frederick ; 
but the endeavors of the pope to place a rival on the 
imperial throne were unsuccessful. About the same time, 
Russia and Poland were overrun by the Mongols, who 
penetrated as far as Silesia, and defeated the army of 
Henry the Pious, duke of Lower Silesia, at a place called 
from this engagement Wahlstatt, or the battle-field. 
Then they marched through Morovia and Hungary, and 
after sustaining a defeat somewhere in Austria, retired to 
the steppes, whence they had originally sallied forth. 

213 In the same year, Gregory IX. died, at the age of one 
B hundred years. In the year 1243, Pope Innocent IV. fled 

to Lyons, where he called together a general council, and 
solemnly deposed the emperor and his son Conrad. The 
bishops then elected the Landgrave Henry Raspe of 
Thuringia (1-246), whose elevation to the throne by the 
votes of the clergy, without the consent of the temporal 
electors, procured him the nick-name of the " Parson's 
King" (der PfafFenkonig). The usurper obtained some 
advantages near Frankfort ; but died in the following year 
at the Wartburg, in consequence of wounds received in an 
c engagement in the neighborhood of Ulm. The choice of 
the th ree Rhenish archbishops then fellonCountWilliam 
of Holland, who was also supported by one of the tem- 
poral electors, the King of Bohemia. Leaving his son 
Conrad to oppose the usurper in Germany, Frederick, in 
conjunction with his natural son Enzio (who was taken 
prisoner in a bloody engagement near Fossalta), and his 
general, Ezzelino Romano, resumed the war in Lombardy, 
which continued with various success until his death (at 
Firenzuelo, near Luceria), in 1250. 

6. Conrad IV. (1250— 1254). William (1256). 

214 After sustaining a defeat at Oppenheim, Conrad quitted 
D Germany, where the mendicant friars were preaching a 

crusade against him, and sought an asylum in Apulia, 
which was occupied by the forces of his illegitimate bro- 
ther Manfred. He died in 1254, leaving behind him one 



215 — 217. §44,45.] the two sicilies. 105 

son, named Conradin, an infant of two years old. Almost (214) 
the only public act of William of Holland was the giving A 
his sanction to a confederacy which had been formed by a 
number of towns on the Rhine about the time of his own 
election. He was slain in a frozen morass, by the inha- 
bitants of Friesland, from whom he had attempted to extort 
tribute. 

§ 44. The interregnum in Germany (1257 — 1273). 

So distracted was the empire at this period of our history, 215 
that no native prince would suffer himself to be put in b 
nomination as William's successor : the choice, therefore, 
of the electors fell on two foreigners, Richard of Corn- 
wall (who obtained the majority of votes), and Alfonso 
of Castille. The former, who was crowned at Aix-la- 
Chapelle, visited Germany four times. After his death, in 
1272, Alfonso, who had never quitted Spain since his elec- 
tion, was set aside by the electors, and Count Rudolph, of 
Habsburg, raised to the imperial throne, in 1273, chiefly 
through the influence of the Archbishop of Mainz. 

§ 45. The kingdom of the two Sicilies (1130 — 1282). 

a. Under the Normans (1130 — 1194). The immediate 216 
successors of Roger II., founder of the kingdom of the Two c 
Sicilies (see § 25, d), and conqueror of the northern coast 

of Africa, from Tunis to Tripoli, were William I., surnamed 
the Bad, who lost the possessions of the Sicilian crown in 
Africa; and William (II.) the Good. The legitimate suc- 
cessors of the latter were Constance, daughter of Roger II., 
and her consort, the emperor Henry VI. ; but the throne 
was usurped during a period of five years, by Tancred, a 
natural son of Roger II., and his son William III. 

b. Under the Hohenstavfen (1194—1266). Henry I. 2H 
(VI.) was succeeded by his son Frederick I. (II.) a child d 

of three years old, who was placed under the guardianship 
of the pope. This sovereign transferred the royal residence 
from Palermo to Naples (where he founded a university), 
and gave the nation a new code of laws, most of which 
were borrowed from the ancient Norman constitutions. 
All peculiar jurisdictions were abolished, and thus a check 
5* 



106 THE MIDDLE AGES. [218—220. §46. 

(217) was given to the progress of immorality and luxury. His 
A son Conrad IV. left behind him one son, named Conradin, 
a minor, whose guardian, Manfred, assumed the crown 
without the sanction of his feudal sovereign the pope. On 
receiving intelligence of this proceeding, Urban conferred 
the kingdom on Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis 
of France. In the year 1266, a battle was fought near 
Benevento, in which Manfred lost his life. 
218 c* Under the house of Anjou (1266— 1282). The ad- 
B herents of Manfred fled to Germany, and joined the army 
of Conradin, who entered Italy accompanied by his friend 
Frederick of Austria, and after sustaining a defeat at 
Tagliacozzo, or Scurcola, in the neighborhood of Alba 
(August 23), was taken prisoner and executed (with his 
companion) in the market-place of Naples (1268). On 
the scaffold he bequeathed his claims to Peter III. of 
Arragon, Manfred's son-in-law. The flames of discontent, 
kindled by the insolence and tyranny of Charles of Anjou, 
burst forth on Easter-Monday, 1282, during the Vesper 
service at Palermo (the Sicilian vespers), when all the 
Frenchmen in the island were massacred, and the crown 
of Sicily placed on the head of Peter of Arragon, Charles 
still retaining the kingdom of Naples. 



§ 46. France (1108—1270). 

219 5. Louis (VI.) the Fat (1108— -1137). The gradual 
c abolition of serfdom and the formation of free guilds, or 

companies (communes) in the cities, contributed in no 
small degree to the consolidation of the sovereign authority, 
and the depression of the powerful vassals of the crown. 
Normandy was still held by the King of England as a 
French fief, in spite of three attempts made by Louis VI. 
to restore Robert, duke of that country, who had been 
deposed and imprisoned by his brother, Henry I. 

220 6. Louis VII. (1137 — 1180) was persuaded by the 
D Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux to take part in the second 

crusade (see page 89), during which the affairs of his 
kingdom were well administered by the Abbot Suger. On 
nis return, Louis divorced his wife Eleonora, heiress of 
Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, who immediately married 



221. §46.] FRANCE. 107 

Henry, duke of Normandy and count of Anjou. Two (220) 
years later, on the accession of this prince to the English A 
throne, the whole western half of France was annexed to 
England. 

7. Philip II. (1180— 122|), surnamed Augustus (on 221 
account of his conquests), quarrelled with Richard Coeur 
de Lion during the third crusade, and made an unsuccess- 
ful attempt on the English possessions in France. On the 
other hand, Richard's successor, John (surnamed Lack- 
land), whom Philip had in vain cited to appear before the 
chamber of peers at Paris, and clear himself from the 
charge of having murdered his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, 
was compelled to relinquish all his French fiefs except 
Guienne. By the consolidation of these fiefs, the crown of 
France obtained an influence infinitely greater than that 
possessed by its vassals individually. King John having b 
quarrelled with the pope respecting the election of an 
Archbishop of Canterbury, Innocent III. excommunicated 
him, and invited Philip II. to take possession of England. 
An arrangement was subsequently effected, by which John 
consented to hold his territories as a fief of the see of 
Rome ; but, notwithstanding this change in the aspect of 
affairs, Philip, who had obtained a victory at Bovines over 
John and his allies (the Emperor Otho IV. and the Count 
of Flanders), sent his son Louis into England, whence he 
was expelled at the end of a year. During the progress of c 
these events a fierce civil war was raging in the south of 
France, where the A lbigenses (a designation common to 
several sects which had arisen in that quarter of the king- 
dom, especially in the province of Albigeois, towards the 
close of the twelfth century) had refused to recognize 
either the spiritual or secular authority of the pope, and 
placing themselves under the protection of Count Rai- 
mond VI. of Thoulouse, had destroyed several churches 
and ill-treated the clergy. Sentence of excommunication d 
having been passed on the count by Pope Innocent III., 
and preachers sent forth to proclaim a crusade against the 
heretics, the cities of Beziers and Carcassonne were laid in 
ashes (1209), the inhabitants butchered without distinction 
of age or sex, and the greater part of Languedoc overrun 
by the crusaders. Origin of the "pairs de France" (six 
temporal, viz. the dukes of Normandy, Guienne, and Bur- 



108 THE MIDDLE AGES. [222, 223. § 46. 

(221) gundy, the counts ofThoulouse, Champagne, and Flanders; 
A and six spiritual, viz. the Archbishop of Rheims and five 
bishops) ; and of appeals from the baronial courts to the 
king. 

222 8. Louis VIII. (1213—1226) undertook a fresh cru- 
sade against the Albigenset and Raimond VII., and died 
before its termination. 

223 9. Louis IX. (St. Louis, 1226— 1270), the most pious 
prince of the middle ages, commenced his reign under the 
guardianship of his mother, Blanche of Castille, and termi- 
nated the Albigensian war in 1229, by concluding a peace 
with Raimond VII., who was compelled to cede a portion 
of his dominions to the crown, and bequeath the remainder 

B to his son-in-law, a brother of the king. The Albigenses 
were exterminated partly through the vigilance of the 
recently-established inquisition, and the exertions of the 
Dominican preachers, and partly by actual violence. — For 
his first crusade, see page 92. A permanent peace with 
England was established by the restoration of four pro- 
vinces south of the Charente to Henry III., who, on his 
part, consented to abandon his claims to all other portions 
of the French territory formerly possessed by England, 
and to take the oath of feudal allegiance to Louis; after 
which he was enrolled among the peers of France, as duke 

c of Guienne. For the preservation of peace at home, all 
private feuds were strictly forbidden, wager of battle 
abolished on the estates belonging to the crown, the rights 
of the Church secured by a pragmatic sanction, and the 
baronial jurisdiction gradually subjected to the royal 
courts, which were duly supplied with advocates. — For 
his second crusade and death, see page 92. 



224—228. §47.] England. 109 

§ 47. England (1066—1272). 
a. Under Norman kings (1066 — 1154). 

William I. t 1087. 224 



i ■> /^ 

Robert, William II. Henry I. Adelaide, 

Duke of Normandy. t 1100. t 1135. mar. Stephen, 

i * > Count of Blois. 



Matilda, 



mar. 1. The. Emperor Henry V. Stephen, 

2. Geoffrey Plantagenet, King, t 1154. 

Count of Anjou. 

Henry II. tll89. 

1. William (I.) the Conqueror (1066— 1087), in- 225 
troduced the feudal system into England, and divided the b 
conquered territory into 60,215 portions, of which 14,000 
were retained by the crown, and 20,215 conferred on the 
clergy, who were bound, no less than the temporal barons, 

to render military service for their fiefs. As the best 
security for the stability of his usurped throne, William 
filled all the great offices of state with Normans, intro- 
duced the French language into the courts of law and 
schools, and published an exact register of the lands of 
England, which still exists, under the title of Domesday 
Book. 

2. William (II.) Rufus (1087—1100), succeeded 226 
his father on the English throne, to the exclusion of his c 
elder brother Robert, who inherited the dukedom of Nor- 
mandy, and joined the crusaders. 

3. Henry I. (1100 — 1135) seized on the crown during 227 
the absence of his elder brother in Palestine, and on his 
return robbed him also of Normandy, which was united to 
England in 1106. Robert was deprived of his eyes, and 
died in prison. A charter by which the severity of the D 
feudal constitution was in some degree qualified, was 
granted by Henry to the nobility and the city of London. 
The recognition by the nobility of Henry's daughter Ma- 
tilda, and her second husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, intro- 
duced the principle of female succession into England; but 
Henry having died in Normandy, a rival candidate for the 
throne appeared in the person of 

4. Stephen of Blois, who was defeated by the forces 228 



110 THE MIDDLE AGES. [229—231. §47. 

(228) of Matilda near Lincoln, thrown into prison, and only per- 
A mitted to retain the crown during his life, on condition of 
nominating Matilda's son Henry as his successor. 

b. Under the four first kings of the house of An- 
jou or Plantagenet (1154 — 1272). 

229 1. Henry II. (1154 — 1189) inherited Normandy from 
his mother, and Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, from his 
father; and held Guienne and Poitou (see § 45) in right 
of his wife. The attempts of Henry to subject (by the 
constitutions of Clarendon) ecclesiastics to the jurisdic- 
tion of the temporal courts in matters purely secular, and 
to restrain the practice of appealing to Rome, were de- 
feated by the pertinacity of Thomas a Becket, archbishop 
of Canterbury, who was murdered in his own cathedral by 

B four noblemen. To satisfy the people, Henry did penance 
at the archbishop's tomb. Ireland, which was distracted 
by intestine feuds, was conquered in 1172, and the King of 
Scotland compelled to take the oath of vassalage to the 
crown of England. Henry died of grief, occasioned by 
repeated acts of rebellion, committed at the instigation of 
his consort, by his two sons, who were abetted in their 
treason by the King of France. 

230 2. Richard Cceur de Lion (1189— 1199) sold his 
c feudal supremacy over Scotland, passed three years in 

Palestine, and two in a German prison, and lost his life 
before a fortress during a war which he had undertaken 
against France, in consequence of the support afforded by 
that power to his rebellious brother John. 
281 3. John (surnamed Lackland) (1199—1216 was 
deprived of all his French fiefs, except Guienne, as a 
punishment for the murder of his nephew, Arthur of Brit- 
tany, whose claims to the English crown were supported by 
D Philip Augustus. About the same time, John was excommu- 
nicated by Pope Innocent III. (in consequence of a dispute 
respecting the nomination of an archbishop of Canterbury), 
and the sovereignty of England offered to the King of 
France (compare § 46). Having effected a reconciliation 
with the pope, by consenting to hold his kingdom as a 
fief of the Holy See, John made an unsuccessful attempt to 
abrogate the charter of English liberty (Magna Charta 



232. §47.] ENGLAND. Ill 

libertatum), which his insurgent barons had forced him (231) 
to sign in 1215, and soon afterwards died of fever, occa- A 
sioned by the fatigue of a precipitate flight. 

4. Henry III. (1216 — 1272) was only ten years of age 232 
when he ascended the throne. Prince Louis of France, 
who had assumed the title of King of England, in con- 
sequence of the pope's invitation (compare page 107), was 
defeated by the Earl of Pembroke (Henry's guardian) near 
Lincoln, and also in a naval engagement, and compelled 
to renounce his claims. Scarcely, however, was Henry 
securely seated on the throne, when his incapacity mani- 
fested itself in the injudicious selection of his generals and 
ministers, and the favor shown to foreign adventurers, 
as well as in the oppression of his own subjects, notwith- 
standing his assurances (renewed during a period of thirty 
years, on the occasion of every fresh subsidy) that their 
privileges should be respected. The discontent excited by b 
his weakness and treachery burst forth at last in an insur- 
rection of the barons (1258, headed by Henry's brother- 
in-law, Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester). Henry was 
compelled to assemble a parliament at Oxford, and commit 
the administration of his kingdom to a council composed of 
twenty-four barons. An attempt on the part' of the king c 
to resume the reins of government, occasioned the battle of 
Lewes (1264), in which Henry (with his brother, Richard 
of Cornwall, king of Germany) was taken prisoner, and 
forced to purchase his freedom by consenting to re-establish 
the council of barons. The haughty demeanor of Leices- 
ter offended the barons; but, on the other hand, the favor 
of the people was conciliated by his calling to the parlia- 
ment two knights from each county, and two burgesses as 
representatives of each town, thus laying the foundation of 
a House of Commons. Meanwhile Edward, the heir- d 
apparent to the throne, had assembled the adherents of the 
king, and marched to Evesham, where a battle was fought 
in 1265, in which Leicester was slain, and the baronial 
aristocracy completely crushed. The result of this victory 
was the re-establishment of peace between the king and 
his people. — For an account of the termination of the dis- 
putes with France, by a peace with Louis IX., see page 108. 



112 THE MIDDLE AGES. [233— 235. § 48, 49. 



§ 48. Spain. 

233 1. The kingdom established by the Arabians in Spain 
A remained until the end of this period (1269) in close con- 
nection with the empire of Morocco ; but the Moorish 
power, both in Africa and in the peninsula, had been gra- 
dually declining since the defeat of their forces at Tolosa 
(1212), by the united armies of the kings of Arragon, 
Castille, and Navarre. In Spain especially, Christianity 
had gradually obtained a preponderance over Islamism, 
through the acquisition of provinces, which had either been 
re-conquered from the unbelievers, or conferred by them 
as fiefs on the native princes. 

234 2. Christian Spain, a. The kingdom of Leon and 
B Castille (compare § 33, 2) was divided by Alfonso VII. 

into two sovereignties (1157), which were re-united by 
Ferdinand the Saint (1230), and augmented by the addi- 
tion of several' Moorish provinces (Cordova, Estremadura, 
Murcia, Jaen, and Seville), the conquest of which was 
principally achieved by the knights of the three Castilian 
orders (Alcantara, Calatrava, and St. Jago de Compostella), 
established towards the middle of the twelfth century. 
His son Alfonso X. (surnamed the Wise) was elected 

c King of Germany (compare § 44). b. Navarre was again 
separated from Arragon, and continued to be an indepen- 
dent kingdom until 1284, when it was annexed to France. 
c. On the other hand, Barcelona, the Balearic isles, and 
the kingdom of Valencia, were added to the kingdom of 
Arragon, the first through the marriage of Count Raimond 
of Barcelona with the heiress of Arragon, and the others 
by the sword** of James I., surnamed the Conqueror. 

D Pedro III., son- of this monarch, whom Conradin imme- 
diately before his execution had nominated heir of his 
claims to the Neapolitan throne, became King of Sicily 
after the Sicilian vespers. 

§ 49. Portugal. 

235 About the time of the first crusade (1096), Alfonso VI., 
of Castille, granted to his brave son-in-law, Henry, duke 
of Burgundy (great-grandson of Hugh Capet), the whole of 
the territory between the Minho and Douro, which derived 



236. §50.] THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 113 

its name of Portugal from the city of Porto. 1 The capital (235) 
was Coimbra. Alfonso I., who had been enabled to extend A 
the boundaries of his infant kingdom by a victory over the 
Arabians at Ourique (1139), assumed the title of king (for 
the recognition of which he engaged to pay a yearly tribute 
to the pope), obtained a constitution for his new kingdom 
from the Cortes of Lamego, and with the assistance of 
some English and North-German crusaders, wrested Lis- 
bon from the infidels. Alfonso III. further enlarged the 
kingdom by the conquest of Algarves in 1253. 

B. The East. 

§ 50. The Byzantine empire. 

1. Under the Comneni and Dukas (1157— 1185]. 236 
The soldiers, weary of their dependence on the two prin- b 
cesses (compare § 34), had placed their comrade Isaac 
Comnenus on the imperial throne ; but the newly-elected 
emperor was soon compelled by bodily infirmity to resign 
his crown and retire into a monastery. A friend of his 
house, named Constantine Dukas, was then invested with 
the purple, which he bequeathed to his wife (Eudocia), to be 
held in trust for his three sons, subject to the condition that 
the empress should remain unmarried. Scarcely, however, c 
had seven months expired, when Eudocia, disregarding 
her lord's injunctions, bestowed her hand on her general, 
Romanus Diogenes, who was defeated and taken prisoner 
in a war with the Seldschuks. After a short captivity, 
Diogenes was generously set at liberty by his conquerors, 
and returning home, found his wife imprisoned in a con- 
vent, and the throne in possession of Michael VII. (eldest 
son of Constantine Dukas), who defeated him and put out 
his eyes. The greater part of Asia Minor had been d 
already wrested from the empire by the Seldschuks (hence 
the Sultanate of Iconium, or Rum), and the whole of 
Lower Italy by the Normans, when the Comneni again 
ascended the throne. Three emperors of that house, each 
distinguished for his bravery, viz. Alexius Comnenus, 
his son Kalo- Johannes, and grandson Manuel (whose 
united reigns occupied 100 years, 1081 — 1180), resisted 
manfully the encroachments of the Seldschuks in the east, 

[ 1 Called by us " O Porto, the port."] 



114 THE MIDDLE AGES. [237—239. §51. 

(236) the Normans in Lower Italy, and the Petschenegens and 
A Cumanes in the north, notwithstanding the feebleness to 
which the empire had been reduced by the corruption of 
the court and the struggles of party. Manuel's son, 
Alexius II. (a minor) was murdered after a short reign by 
his guardian, Andronicus, whose cruel reign of three 
years was terminated by an insurrection of Isaac An- 
gel us, a collateral relation of the Comneni, who had 
been condemned to suffer an ignominious death. 

237 2. Under the house of Angelus (1185—1204). 
The weak Isaac Angelus, who had been unable to 
prevent the revolt of the Bulgarians, and the loss of 
Cyprus, was set aside by his brother Alexius III., who 

B put out his eyes and threw him into prison. The fourth 
crusade, as it was called, was undertaken by the Vene- 
tians and French, for the purpose of replacing him on 
the throne, from which he was a second time deposed (see 
paa;e 90). 

238 3. The Latin empire (1204— 1261). For an ac- 
count of this empire, as well as those of Nicaea and Trebi- 
zond, see page 91. 

§ 51. The Arabians. 

239 The Caliphate of the Abbasides was extin- 
c guished in the year 1258 by the Mongols, who stormed 

Bagdad (the only city still possessed by the caliphs), and 
for seven days deluged its streets with blood. Motazem, 
the fifty-sixth and last caliph, was sewn up in a cow's hide, 
and dragged by the conquerors through the streets of his 
capital. The descendants of Prince Hakim, who escaped 
the general destruction, continued to exercise a spiritual 
supremacy in Egypt (without any admixture of secular 
authority) until the conquest of that country by the Turks 
D in 1517. Of the African dynasties, the Aglabides and 
Edrisidps had become extinct during the preceding period ; 
the Fatimides in Egypt were overthrown by Nureddin ; and 
the Morabethes, who had founded the empire of Morocco and 
conquered the south of Spain, were expelled by the Almo- 
hades (whose supremacy terminated in 1269). The whole, 
therefore, of Arabian Africa was now shared by three re- 
cent dynasties (the Abuhassians, Merinides, and Zianides), 



240, 241. §52, 53.] Arabians, seldschuks, etc. 115 

who had already from time to time obtained possession of (239) 
particular portions. 

§ 52. The Seldschuks. 

About fifty years before the commencement of the cru- 240 
sades, a nomadic Turkish tribe, named the Seldschuks, A 
under the command of their Sultan Togrul Beg, a grand- 
son of the Turkish Emir Seldschuk, conquered all the 
countries between the Oxus and Euphrates, and having 
established their head-quarters at Bagdad (where their 
leader enjoyed the dignity of emir al Omrah), made them- 
selves also masters of Syria and Asia Minor. After the B 
death of their third Sultan (Malek) in 1092, the mighty 
empire, which in its palmy days extended from the frontier 
of China to the Mediterranean, and from Samarcand to the 
southern coast of Arabia, after a succession of civil wars, 
was split into five small governments, which during the 
crusades fell into the hands of other Turkish hordes. The 
kingdom of Iconium alone continued to exist, although in 
a state of dependence on the Mongols, until the thirteenth 
century. 

§ 53. The Mongols. 

The Mongols, a nomadic tribe closely connected with 241 
the Huns, who inhabited the ti'ackless plains stretching c 
southwards from Siberia to the greater Bucharia and the 
Desert of Kobi, in the year 1206 conferred the title of 
Dsc-hingis-Kh an (i.e. Khan of Khans), on Ternud 
Schin, the son of a khan. Under the command of this 
chieftain, they conquered a portion of northern China, 
expelled Mohammed, sultan of the Chowaresmians, 
(whose dominions extended from India to the Cas- 
pian Sea), invaded Russia, and overthrew the Prince of 
Kiev (on the Kalka). Under the four sons of Dschingis- D 
Khan (among whom the empire of Kiev was divided), 
the whole of Northern China fell into the hands of the 
Mongols, who then overran Russia, Poland, Silesia (where 
they were victorious in the bloody battle of Wahlstadt, 
compare page 104), Moravia, and Hungary, and entering 
Austria, sustained a defeat, which compelled them to re- 
trace their march through Asia Minor, — a measure which 
was rendered still more necessary by the death of their 



116 THE MIDDLE AGES. [242—245. §54. 

(241) great khan. In the year 1258 they took Bagdad, and put 
A an end to the dynasty of the Abbasides. Towards the end 
of the thirteenth century, the empire of the Mongols, which 
now included Thibet and southern China, had reached its 
widest limits, extending from the wall of China to the 
frontier of Poland, and from India to Siberia. The resi- 
dence of the great khan was at Pekin. The administra- 
tion of the provinces was committed to inferior khans, of 
the race of Dschingis-Khan ; the most powerful of whom 
were the khans of Kaptschak on the Wolga, and Dschag- 
atai in Turkestan. 

C. The North-East of Europe. 
§ 54. Scandinavia. 

242 1. Iceland remained independent until nearly the end 
B of this period (1261 ?), when it became a province of 

Norway. In no country were the ancient Scandinavian 
manners, language, and literature so little affected by 
the influence of western Europe, of which scarcely any 
traces are discernible, except in the ecclesiastical consti- 
tution of the island. 

243 2. In Norway, the dynasty of the legitimate descend- 
ants of Harald Harfagr expired in 1103, with Magnus III., 
whose natural children threw the whole kingdom into 
confusion by their contests for the crown. Iceland and 
Greenland were annexed to Norway, and the Hebrides 
sold to Scotland. 

244 3. Sweden, like Norway, was distracted during this 
c period by factions and civil wars, occasioned not so much 

by disputed successions, as by the antagonism which sub- 
sisted between the Gothic and Swedish races, as well as 
between the Christians and heathens. The frequent result 
of these disputes was the division of Norway into two 
kingdoms, at first into Christian and heathen, and subse- 
quently into a Gothic and Swedish. 

245 4. In Denmark, Avhich comprehended also southern 
D Sweden, or Schonen, the reigning family was that of the 

Estrides, who conquered the island of Rugen, as well as 
the whole line of coast from Esthonia to Holstein, together 
with the towns of Liibeck and Hamburg. The whole of 
this conquered territory, with the exception of northern 



246, 247. § 55, 56.] Russia — Poland. 117 

Esthonia, was afterwards surrendered by Waldemar II. to (245) 
the Count of Schwerin, as the price of his liberation from A 
prison. Since the abandonment of voyages to England, the 
intercourse between the two countries had given place to 
an intimate connection with Germany (especially after the 
conquest of the south-eastern shores of the Baltic), which 
produced an imitation of German institutions, especially as 
regarded the creation of orders of chivalry, and the establish- 
ment of regulations for the government of their cities. 

§ 55. Russia. 
Besides the two grand principalities of Kiev and Vladi- 246 
mir, there existed no less than fifty of inferior note. In b 
the year 1238, the whole of Russia was occupied (after the 
victories on the banks of the Kalka and at Sita) by the 
Mongols, who burnt the cities of Vladimir, Moscow, and 
Kiev. Novgorod alone (which had been a distinct prin- 
cipality since 1137) retained its independence, and became 
in 1267 one of the commercial stations of the Hanseatic 
league. The grand principalities were permitted to re- 
main, their rulers engaging to pay tribute to the Mongols. 
During this period of dependence, the grand prince of c 
Vladimir (Jaroslav) conquered Finland, and his son Alex- 
ander, prince of Novgorod, and afterwards of Vladimir, 
obtained a brilliant victory over the Swedes on the banks 
of the Neva. Hence his surname of Nevskoi. 

§ 56. Poland under the Piasts. 
During this period Poland, which had again become a 247 
dukedom, and now comprehended Silesia and eastern Po- 
merania, with its capital Dantzic, improved rapidly under 
the influence of German civilization, notwithstanding the 
wars in which she was engaged with the wild tribes on her 
northern and eastern frontiers, and the civil commotions 
occasioned by the partition of the dukedom among the 
four sons of Boleslav III. The new sovereignties were — d 
1. Cracow and Silesia; 2. Great Poland; 3. Masovia 
and Cujavia ; 4. Sendomir and Lublin. In addition to his 
dukedom of Cracow and Silesia, the eldest exercised a sort 
of feudal supremacy over the others. Conrad, duke of 
Masovia, being too feeble to withstand the attacks of the 
Prussians, called in the knights of the Teutonic order, who 
were rewarded for their services with a grant of the ter- 
ritory of Culm. The invasion of Poland and Silesia by the 



118 THE MIDDLE AGES. [248 — 250. §57 59. 

A Mongols, although of short duration, occasioned fearful 
havoc, but no actual loss of territory. 

§ 57. Prussia. 

248 The Prussians, a half-civilized horde, inhabiting the line 
of coast from the Vistula to the Niemen, not only resisted 
successfully the attempts of the Poles to reduce them to 
submission, under pretence of converting them to Chris- 
tianity, but becoming themselves the aggressors, compelled 
Conrad, duke of Masovia, to apply for assistance to the 
"Brethren of the Sword" (an order originally established 
in Livonia), and subsequently to the knights of the Teutonic 

B order. After an obstinate struggle, in which they were 
supported during a period of fifty-three years (1230 — 
1283) by crowds of adventurers from Pomerania, Austria, 
and Brandenburg, the Teutonic knights became masters of 
Prussia, where they founded the cities of Thorn, Marien- 
werder, Elbing, &c, and introduced German civilization. 
The government of the conquered territory was adminis- 
tered by a provincial master, until the establishment of the 
order itself at Marienberg, in the year 1309. 

§ 58. Hungary under the Arpads. 

249 Ladislav the Saint (see § 39) was succeeded by fifteen 
c kings of the Arpadic family, which became extinct in 1301. 

During the whole of this period the Hungarians were en- 
gaged in wars with German kings and dukes, with Venice, 
the revolted maritime cities of Croatia and Dalmatia, with 
the Byzantine emperors, the Bohemians, Poles, and Rus- 
sians, and in domestic feuds occasioned partly by disputed 
successions, and partly by insurrections of the nobles, who 
compelled King Andrew II. (after his return from Syria) 
D to grant them a charter, called " the Golden Book." But 
the heaviest calamity of all was the terrible invasion of 
the Mongols, in 1241. Bela IV., who then occupied Jhe 
throne, was compelled to seek an asylum in Dalmatia ; 
but on his return he exerted himself manfully to restore 
the prosperity of his kingdom, which had been well-nigh 
depopulated by the war. 

§ 59. Religion, Arts, Manufactures, 8fC., during the Third 
Period,. 

250 1. The Church. The attempts of Gregory VII. to 
exalt the spiritual above the temporal power were followed 
up by his successors, particularly by Urban II., Paschal II., 



250. §59.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 119 

Innocent III. and IV., and towards the end of this period (250) 
produced not only the complete emancipation of the Church A 
from secular control, but the elevation of the pope to the 
rank of supreme judge over all temporal princes, whose 
crowns were placed at his absolute disposal. At the same b 
time, the ecclesiastical authority of the popes was strength- 
ened — I. By assemblies of the Church, in which term are 
comprehended, (1) oecumenical councils, convoked and pre- 
sided over by the pope himself; (2) synods held annually 
at Rome ; and (3) provincial synods summoned by the 
pope's legates. II. By sending legates with unlimited 
powers to all the countries of Europe. III. By the esta- 
blishment of an appeal to Rome from the sentences of 
metropolitans and bishops. IV. By an unscrupulous ex- 
ercise of the right of suspending refractory sovereigns, or 
placing their kingdoms under an interdict. The monastic c 
system was also greatly enlarged: 1. By the establish- 
ment of the three religious orders of chivalry in Pales- 
tine, of three similar orders in Spain, and of the order 
of Knights of the Sword in Livonia (1199). 2. By 
the creation, from time to time, of fresh orders,' with 
more stringent rules of discipline, a. The Prasmonstra- 
tenses (founded by S. Norbert of Xanten, at Premontre, 
near Laon). b. The Trinitarians, c. The Carmelites (on 
Mount Carmel). d. The Dominicans, or Preachers (founded 
by S. Dominic, a Spaniard), especially for the conversion 
of heretics in the south of France, c. The Franciscans 
(founded by S. Francis of Assisi). The rules of the three 
last enjoined poverty, in the strictest sense of the term. 
All attempts to re-unite the Greek and Latin churches d 
were fruitless ; but, on the other hand, the Maronites, and, 
to a certain extent, the Armenians, were reconciled to the 
Church of Rome. The teaching of Peter Abelard, his dis- 
ciple Arnold of Brescia, and other schoolmen of the twelfth 
century, produced a variety of sects — the Cathari in Ger- 
many and Italy ; the Waldenses, or Vaudois (founded by 
Peter Waldes, a rich merchant of Lyons) ; and the Albi- 
genses, in the south of France, which united towards the 
end of the 12th century, and were supported by many of 
the temporal nobles in their resistance to their bishops. For 
the suppression of these heresies 1 crusades were preached, 

[ 1 "It is beyond a doubt that many of these sectaries [the Cathari, Picards, 
Paterins, and Albigenses] owed their origin to the Paulicians." " Those who 



120 THE MIDDLE AGES. [251. §59. 

A and the court of inquisition established, subject at first to 
the authority of the bishops, but at a later period almost 
exclusively under the control of the Dominicans. 
251 2. Political Constitution. The distinguishing cha- 
racteristic of this and the following period is the spirit of 
political communism which pervades every relation of 
life, and manifests itself in the establishment of orders of 
chivalry, Hanseatic leagues among merchants, guilds and 
companies of handicraftsmen, universities and their nations, 
bands of mercenary soldiers, unions of architects and 

B painters, &c. Two of the most important results of this 
spirit are — 1. Chivalry, the germ of which may be found 
in the practice of the ancient Franks (among whom the 
horse-soldier was highly esteemed), but for its develop- 
ment it is indebted to the military exercises, at the courts 
of the German kings, and the combats of the Christians 

c with the Moors in Spain. Since the establishment of the 
feudal system, it had been the custom for proprietors of 
the larger estates to serve on horseback ; and this union 
of persons, pledged to the performance of the same duties, 
soon assumed the form of a distinct order of chivalry, which 
spread, by means of the crusades, over the east as well as 
the west ; its character being of course modified by the 
various circumstances of the countries in which it was 

D established. The degrees of chivalry were — (a) The page 
(from seven years old to fourteen), who was raised to the 
rank of (b) Esquire, and declared capable of bearing arms, 
by the delivery of a sword. The esquire was dubbed (c) a 
Knight (generally in his twenty-first year) by the blow of a 
sword on his shoulder. The chief duties of knighthood 
were protection of the Church, widows, and orphans ; 

■ maintenance of personal honor, even at the cost of life ; 
and a courteous and modest demeanor towards ladies 
(galanterie) . For the faithful performance of these duties, 
the knight was rewarded with the approbation of mankind 
and the panegyrical strains of minstrels. The most splen- 
did exhibition of chivalry was the tournament, — a develop- 



are absolutely free from any taint of ManichaBism are properly called Waldenses ; 
a name perpetually confounded in later times with that of Albisenses, but dis- 
tinguishing a sect probably of separate origin, and at least of different tenets." 

" These pious and innocent sectaries [the Waldenses], of whom the very 

monkish historians speak well, appear to have nearly resembled the modem Mo- 
ravians." " The Waldenses were always considered as much less erroneous in 
their tenets than the Albigenses or Manichaeans."— Hallam, vol. iii. p. 45. 



251. § 59.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 121 

ment of the ancient military exercises, which assumed a (251) 
more systematic character towards the end of the twelfth a 
century, and soon became popular in every country of 
Europe. For the union of chivalry and monasticism, see 
p. 119. — 2. The establishment and development of a free 221 
and privileged Burgher order throughout the whole of what 
was once the Carlovingian empire, (a) especially in Upper 
and Central Italy, where, during the disputes respecting the 
right of investiture, all affairs of police, finance, and ex- 
ecutive government in the cities, had been administered by 
civic magistrates, with the consules communis at their head. 
At a diet held on the Roncalian plain during the second b 
campaign of Frederick I. in Italy, the supremacy of the 
emperor was established, and imperial lieutenants (podesta) 
appointed to execute his decrees ; but the misconduct of 
these officers soon occasioned their removal, and the ap- 
pointment of civic podesta. At a later period, even the 
handicraftsmen claimed a share in the government, which 
until that time had been entirely in the hands of the patri- 
cians, and compelled the authorities to sanction the appoint- 
ment of a capitano del popolo, who became thenceforward 
the opponent of the podesta. Whenever it was requisite c 
that the contending parties should act in concert, the 
supreme political authority (signoria) was placed for a 
definite period in the hands of some neighboring prince, 
or renowned leader (condottiere). All these free cities 
adopted the Roman code, and a system of indirect taxation. 
(b) In Germany, especially in the times of Frederick II. and 
the interregnum, the cities, partly by purchase and partly 
by the strong hand, became possessed of similar though 
less extensive immunities, such as immediate dependence 
on the empire, self-government, the right of coining money, 
imposing taxes, and holding markets, with various com- 
mercial privileges, and free trade to a certain extent. The D 
conservation of these privileges was intrusted to a burgo- 
master, assisted by a college of counsellors, until the four- 
teenth century, when the guilds, or trades-unions, seem to 
have taken forcible possession if not of all, at least of the 
most important civic offices, (c) In France, political 
privileges were granted to the cities by the nobility and 
clergy, either for a pecuniary consideration, or because 
they had sagacity enough to perceive that their own pros- 
6 



122 THE MIDDLE AGES. [252, 253. § 59. 

(251) perity was closely interwoven with that of their vassals. 

A (d) In Arragon,the executive authority was shared by royal 
and civic functionaries. In the north and east of Europe, 
towards the middle of the thirteenth century, cities were 
founded after the model of those in the west, or civic 
privileges granted to existing communities. It was only, 
however, in the maritime cities of Upper Italy that the 
attempt to emancipate themselves from the authority of 
their feudal sovereign was entirely successful. In Ger- 
many, especially, the imperial cities remained subject to the 

b emperor, and the others to the great nobles. Delegates 
from the cities appeared at diets first at Barcelona, then in 
Italy, and at a later period in England. 

252 3. Legislation and legal practice. The written 
codes of this period were either abstracts of existing laws com- 
piled by command of princes, or the works of private indivi- 
duals, which in process of time were recognized as public 
documents; such, for example, as the Lombardic feudal 
code and the Saxon and Swabian mirrors (Sachsenspiegel 
and Schwabenspiegel), the former for Northern, and the lat- 

c ter for Southern Germany : or they were charters granted by 
kings to their subjects, e. g. the Charta Magna Libertatum 
of King John, and the Charter of Andrew II. of Hungary. 
The compilation of civil codes was also common during 
this period. Towards its conclusion the judicial combat 
and the ordeal fell into disuse, but the practice of torturing 
suspected persons became more frequent, and the punish- 
ments inflicted on criminals- more cruel and sanguinary. 

253 4. During this period the sciences, the study of which 
had hitherto been confined to the cloister, began to be 
cultivated by laity as well as clergy, under the auspices of 
the spiritual and temporal princes, whose object was greatly 
promoted by the increased number of schools and the 

D establishment of universities. The most ancient of .these 
foundations owe their origin to the assemblages of young 
persons, who flocked to the theological and philosophical 
schools of Paris, where Abelard lectured, and to the 
schools of jurisprudence at Bologna, in which the principles 
of the Roman law were expounded by Irnevius. The 
pupils and teachers formed a privileged corporation, or 
universitas, with peculiar jurisdiction. After the model 
of these two universities (at which the other sciences began 



254. §59.] RELIGION, AETS, ETC. 123 

gradually to be taught), establishments were formed during (253) 
this period at Padua, Naples, Thoulouse, Salamanca, Fer- A. 
rara, Oxford, and Cambridge. The scholastic mode of 
treating theological subjects, which had been introduced by 
Lanfranc and Anselm (f 1143), was pursued by Abelard 
(whose dogmas were condemned as heretical by St. Bernard) 
and by his disciple Peter Lombard, whose manual of 
theology was used as a text book for more than 300 years. 
In the thirteenth century, the discovery of the metaphysical, 
physical, and ethical works of Aristotle (his Logic having 
been the only one of his treatises hitherto studied) laid the 
foundation of philosophical scholastics, in which Albertus 
(count of Bollstadt) Magnus (f 1280), his disciple, Thomas 
Aquinas (j- 1274), and Duns Scotus(f 1308) especially dis- 
tinguished themselves. Next to theology and philosophy the b 
canon and Roman laws were most zealously studied. His- 
tory, in central and western Europe, was written in Latin, 
until the time of GeofTroy and Joinville, two Frenchmen, 
who published the first historical work in the vernacular 
tongue. Mathematical science was learnt from the Ara- 
bian writers or from Arabic translations of Greek treatises. 
The most celebrated student in this department, and in 
chemistry, was Roger Bacon (j - 1294). Mechanics were c 
brought to great perfection during the erection of the noble 
buildings of this period. The use of the mariner's com- 
pass was also discovered. Byzantine literature was con- 
fined to historical works (Anna Comnena, Joh. Zonaras), 
critical expositions of the ancient Greek writers (Homer, 
by Eustathius), and treatises on jurisprudence and theolo- 
gy. Among the Arabians, Averroes was distinguished as 
a philosophical writer, Abulfaradsh as a historian, and 
Geber as a mathematician. 

5. Art. 254 

(a) The poetry of this period was deeply imbued with d 
the romantic spirit of the crusades and of chivalry. In 
Germany epic and lyric poetry attained their highest degree 
of excellence under the patronage of the Hohenstaufen. 
The productions of the former were of three sorts: 1. 
Original German compositions (the Nibelungen Noth, and 
other poems); 2. Imitations of northern French works 
(legends of Charlemagne, Arthur, and the Knights of the 
Round Table) or of Provencal romances ; 3. Poetical ver- 



124 THE MIDDLE AGES. [255, 256. § 59. 

(254) sions of ancient myths. The most distinguished professors 
A of lyric poetry were the Minne- singers; Henry von Val- 
deck, Hartmann von der Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, 
Walter von der Vogelweide, &c. " The war on the Wart- 
burg" is a curious specimen of the poetical contests of 
those days. In the south of France, Provencal minstrelsy 
was cultivated successfully during an entire century by the 
Troubadours, who recited their compositions at the courts 
of the counts of Thoulouse, Provence, &c, whilst in the 
north, epic (principally the chivalrous romance, the contes 
and fabliaux), and at a later period didactic, allegoric, and 
lyric poetry flourished in the hands of the Trouveres. 
The minstrelsy of the Troubadours travelled from Provence 
B to the east of Spain and Lombardy. In Castille the ex- 
ploits of the Cid furnished a fruitful subject for romance. 
In the north, Scandinavian poetry was cultivated with con- 
siderable success, especially in Iceland, where the mythic 
songs of the ancient Scalds and innumerable Sagas were 
brought together in the older and more recent Edda. 

255 (b) The German or new Gothic style of architecture, 
with its characteristic features, the pointed arch, slender 
column, and elegant tracery, was imported from England 
by brotherhoods or unions of architects (freemasons' 
lodges), and attained its highest perfection in the thirteenth 

c century. The most magnificent specimens of this style 
of architecture, such as the minsters of Strasburg (begun 
in 1018) and Friburg, the church of St. Stephen at Vienna 
(1140), the domes of Magdeburg and Cologne (1248); in 
France, the cathedrals of Rouen, Rheims, and Amiens; 
in England, St. Peter's at York, and Westminster Abbey 
in London ; and in Spain, the cathedrals of Burgos and 
Toledo, were at least commenced in this century. Secular 
buildings of every description, such as bridges, palaces, 
council-houses, monasteries, &c, were also erected at an 
enormous cost of labor and money. 

256 (c) Of the other arts, those were especially cultivated 
D which contributed to the embellishment of churches, cast- 
ing in bronze, for instance, and painting on glass, which was 
invented in the eleventh century, and had now attained 
great perfection. Sculpture and painting were not elevated 
to the rank of independent arts until the thirteenth century 
(the former by Nicolo Pisano, j - 1270, and the latter by 



257. § 59.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 125 

Cimabue, 1249 — 1300). Companies or unions of painters A 
were also formed in the thirteenth century. 

6. Commerce. — {a) Maritime trade, (aa)intheMediter- 257 
ranean, was carried on, for the most part, by Genoa, Venice, 
and Pisa, and also by Marseilles and Barcelona, with the 
sea-ports of the Holy Land and Syria, the northern coast of 
Africa, Egypt, Cyprus, Asia Minor, and the Byzantine 
empire. For the trade of the Venetians and Genoese out 
of Constantinople, see page 95. (bh) The commerce of 
the north of Europe flourished principally in (a) northern 
Germany, including Liibeck, Bremen, and Hamburg ; (/?) 
in the Netherlands, especially in the cities of Ypres, B 
Bruges, and Ghent, where Germans, Frenchmen, and 
Italians, were accustomed to meet for the purposes of trade ; 
(y) in the island of Gothland, with its capital Wisby, the 
general emporium of the commerce carried on by German, 
Norman, and Sclavonian adventurers in the Baltic, and 
thence overland by Novgorod into the interior of Russia. 
(b) The chief stations of the inland trade were Ratisbon, 
Vienna, Troyes, Lyons, Beaucaire, Augsburg, Niirnberg, 
Frankfort on the Main, and Cologne. The natural result 
of a commercial league between the cities of Southern 
Germany (Ratisbon, Zurich, Augsburg, and Strasburg), and 
the Italian towns of Genoa and Venice, was an active in- 
terchange of merchandise through the passes of the Alps. 
Even among merchants, especially those of Germany, the c 
spirit of the age manifested itself in the formation — 1. Of 
several Hansas, or unions of commercial men, in one or 
more cities, for the promotion and protection of their trade 
with foreign countries, in which they obtained various pri- 
vileges, and were permitted to erect warehouses and halls 
for the transaction of their business (e. g. the merchants of 
Cologne and other cities in the Netherlands enjoyed a 
monopoly of the trade with England, and had a Guildhall in 
London). 2. Provincial unions, especially of cities in the d 
south of France and north of Germany, for the conservation 
of peace within the district over which their commerce ex- 
tended. Out of these two elements was formed in the fol- 
lowing century the great German Hansa. During this period 
the enactments respecting maritime enterprise and com- 
merce consisted, for the most part, of letters-patent granting 
privileges to particular unions or places. The Church 



126 THE MIDDLE AGES. [258, 259. § 60. 

(257) raised her voice in vain against commercial intercourse 
A with the Mahometans, but was more successful in her 
efforts to suppress the slave-trade. 
258 7. Manufactures, &c. Agriculture flourished during 
this period under the protection of the Treuga Dei, and 
derived considerable advantage from the establishment of 
a free peasant order during the crusades, and the settlement 
of Netherlander in north-eastern Germany. The cultiva- 
tion of the vine was eminently successful in the soutli of 
France and Christian Spain, and mining operations in 
B Bohemia and Moorish Spain. The importance of manual 
crafts was greatly augmented by the establishment of 
guilds, or companies, the freemen of which dwelt in the 
same street or quarter of the city, and exposed their wares 
for sale on rows of benches or in halls. The manufac- 
ture of cloth flourished chiefly in Flanders, Upper Italy, 
Germany, and the south of France ; that of silk, in 
Italy ; of leather, in Moorish Spain ; of paper, in Italy 
and Spain. The best articles of hardware, especially 
swords, were produced in the Netherlands, Upper Italy, 
c and Moorish Spain. The trade in glass was almost 
monopolized by Venice. Commercial prosperity was 
greatly promoted by the establishment of annual fairs, the 
erection of warehouses and depots, and the invention by 
the Lombards of bills of exchange. 



Fourth Period. 

From the termination of the Crusades to the discovery of America, 
1273—1492. 

A. The West. 

§ 60. Germany and Switzerland. 

Geographical view of Germany between the 
years 1300 and 1500. 

259 1. The seven electorates, a. Three archbishoprics :— 

D viz. Mainz, Treves, and Cologne. b. Four temporal 

principalities: viz. 1, the Palatinate (cap. Heidelberg); 

2, Saxony (Wittenberg) ; 3, Bohemia (Prague), with 

Moravia and Silesia ; 4, Brandenburg (Brandenburg). 



260. §60.] GEEMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 127 

2. The Duchies, a. In the west : — 1. Lorraine (cap. (259) 
Nancy) ; 2, Lutzelburg or Luxemburg (Luxemburg), A 
with the county of Saarbriicken ; 3, Limburg (Limburg), 
Brabant (Brussels) ; 4, Cleves (Cleves), with the counties 

of Mark, Juliers, and Berg (Dusseldorf) ; 5, Guelderland. 
b. In the south : — 1, Wurtemberg (Stuttgart); 2, Bavaria 
(Munich ) ; 3, Austria (Vienna), with Styria and Carniola ; 
4, Carinthia. c. In the north : — 1, Brunswick-Luneburg; 
2, Holstein ; 3, Lauenburg ; 4, Mecklenburg (Schwerin 
and Stargard) ; 5, Pomerania. 

3. The Principalities — Nassau and Anhalt. B 

4. The Margravale of Baden. 

5. The Landgravates — Alsace, Hesse, and Thiiringia. 

6. The Burgravate of Niirnberg. 

7. Several Counties (Holland, Hennegan, Flanders, ■ 
Namur, &c.) 

8. The Archbishoprics (exclusive of the three spiritual 
electorates), Salzburg, Magdeburg, and Bremen. 

9. Several (21) Bishoprics. 

10. The (95) free imperial cities. Of these the most c 
considerable were : — a. In Franconia — Spires, Worms, 
Mainz, Frankfort, Wetzlar, Erfurt, b. In Bavaria, Niirn- 
berg and Ratisbon. c. In Swabia — Ulm and Augsburg. 
d. In Alsace — Strasburg. e. In Lorraine — Metz, Treves, 
Cologne, Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, Diiren. f. In 
Saxe-ny — Dortmund, Magdeburg, Bremen, Hamburg, 
Liibeck. 

The kingdom of Burgundy, after its dismemberment, 
was divided between France and the Dukes of Burgundy. 

A. Kings of different houses, 1273—1347. 

1. Rudolf of Habsburg (1273—1291). As early as 260 

the beginning of the thirteenth century, the right of election n 
to the throne of Germany had been transferred from the 
ancient dukes, or popular leaders, to the great officers of 
the imperial household : viz. 1, the Archbishop of Mainz, 
as Arch-Chancellor of the German empire ; 2, the Arch- 
bishop of Treves, as Arch-Chancellor of the kingdom of 
Aries ; 3, the Archbishop of Cologne, as Arch-Chancellor 
of the kingdom of Lombardy ; 4, the Count Palatine of the 
Rhine, as Grand-Sewer ; 5, the Duke of Saxony, as Grand 



128 THE MIDDLE AGES. [261, 262. § 60. 

(260) Marshal ; 6, the King of Bohemia, as Grand Butler ; 7, the 
A Margrave of Brandenburg, as Grand Chamberlain. After 
the death of Richard of Cornwall, the electors, on the 
motion of the Archbishop of Mainz, chose Rudolf of 
Habsburg, a nobleman of very moderate political in- 
fluence. The ambassador of Bohemia having been 
excluded from the hall of election, his master Ottocar 
refused to recognize Rudolf; and being placed under the 
ban of the empire, was compelled to relinquish his claims 
to the sovereignty of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Car- 
niola ; and in a second war was defeated and slain on the 
B Marchfield (1278). Rudolf granted Carinthia to Count 
Mainhard of the Tyrol, and the three remaining prin- 
cipalities to his sons Albert and Rudolf. Ottocar's son, 
Wenceslaus, was allowed to retain Bohemia and Moravia. 
From this period the grand object of the German kings 
seems to have been to establish hereditary power in their 
families. 

261 2. Adolphus of Nassau (1291—1298), a cousin 
c of the Archbishop of Mainz, was placed on the throne 

through the influence of his kinsman, and in order to 
strengthen the interests of his family, purchased Thuringia 
and Meissen from the Landgrave, Albert the Degenerate, 
whose sons, Frederick with the Bitten Cheek, and Diezman, 
refused to recognize the compact. In the war which 
ensued, such fearful barbarities were perpetrated by 
Adolphus, that three of the electors, who were already 
disgusted at his breach of faith, declared the throne void, 
and chose Albert of Austria, a son of Rudolf I. Adol- 
phus was killed in the battle of Gelheim, near Worms. 

262 3. The choice of the electors, which had fallen on 
D Albert I. of Austria (1298 — 1308), during the lifetime 

of Adolphus, was now confirmed by a second election. His 
plans for the aggrandizement of his house, and for render- 
ing the imperial dignity hereditary in the family of Habs- 
burg, were unsuccessful ; nor was he more fortunate in 
the revival of his claims to the sovereignty of Thuringia. 
The extinction of the ancient royal family in Bohemia 
afforded him an opportunity of placing his son Albert on 
the throne of that country ; but this connection was soon 
dissolved by the death of the new sovereign, and the elec- 
tion of the Duke of Carinthia by the Bohemian people. 



263,264. §60.] Germany and Switzerland. 129 

The three forest cantons of Switzerland, Schwyz, Uri, (262) 
and Unterwalden (which had voluntarily placed them- a 
selves under the protection of the empire), having resisted 
an attempt of Albert to render them hereditary possessions 
of his own family, were grievously oppressed by the impe- 
rial governors Herman Gessler of Bruneck and Be rin- 
ger of Landenberg (?) The conspiracy of Werner 
St a u f f a c h e r of Schwyz, Walter F ii r s t (of Attinghausen 
in Uri), and Arnold Melchthal of Unterwalden, with 
thirty confederates, including the renowned William Tell, 
laid the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy (1307). 
Gessler was shot dead by an arrow from the bow of Tell, B 
and Landenberg defeated by a stratagem, and expelled the 
country. In the midst of his preparations for a Swiss cam- 
paign, Albert was assassinated in Aargau by his nephew 
Duke John (Parricida), from whom he had unjustly with- 
held his portion of the Habsburg estates. 

4. Henry VII., of Luxemburg (1308—1313), a 263 
brave and experienced warrior, was chosen by the electors 

on the motion of the Archbishop of Mainz. The attempts 
of Henry to extend the influence of his family wefe more 
successful than those of his predecessors, Bohemia having 
been made a fief of his house by the marriage of his son 
John with the heiress of that kingdom. A succession of c 
victories enabled him to enter Rome in triumph, and place 
on his head the imperial crown, thus restoring the empire, 
which had been in a state of abeyance for sixty-two years. 
He. was on the point of attacking the King of Naples, the 
head of the Guelphic party, when death put an end to his 
ambitious projects. 

5. Louis I V., the Bavarian (1313— 1347), and Fre-264 
derick of Austria (1313 — 1330)", the former chosen by d 
the Luxemburg, the latter by the Habsburg party. The 
house of Habsburg engaged in hostilities with the Swiss, 
who defeated Frederick's brother, Duke Leopold of Austria, 

at Morgarten (1315), and with the rival king at Muhl- 
dorf (1322), where Frederick was defeated and taken 
prisoner (by Schweppermann). A reconciliation was after- 
wards effected (at Trausnitz) between the two kings, who 
shared the throne until the death of Frederick, in 1330. 
After the battle of Miihldorf, Louis had sent an army into 
Italy to assist the Ghibellines against the Guelphs, the 



130 THE MIDDLE AGES. [265. §60. 

(264) devoted adherents of the pope, and was in consequence 

A excommunicated by John XXII. (at Avignon), his king- 
dom placed under an interdict, and the German crown 
offered to France. In defiance of this sentence, Louis 
marched to Milan, where he was crowned King of Lom- 
bardy, and then proceeding to Rome, received the imperial 
crown from the hands of the capitano del popolo, and 
placed a rival pope, Nicholas V., on the papal throne. 

B Finding himself, however, too feeble to maintain his autho- 
rity in Italy, he returned, after the death of Frederick, to 
Germany, where the electors, after endeavoring without 
success to effect a reconciliation between the pope and 
emperor, assembled the first electoral diet at Rense 
(from which the King of Bohemia alone was absent), and 
declared the empire independent of the popedom, swearing 
at the same time to maintain the privileges of the emperor 
and their own rights. Louis increased the possessions of 
his family by — 1, granting the March of Brandenburg as a 
fief to his son Lewis, after the extinction of the Ascanian 
family ; 2, annexing the Tyrol to his hereditary dominions, 
by the marriage of hisson Lewis with the Countess Margaret 

c Maultasch. In this instance he usurped the authority of 
the pope, by himself divorcing Margaret from her husband 
(John Henry of Bohemia), and granting a dispensation for 
marriage within the third degree of consanguinity ; 3, by 
seizing on the counties of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, 
and Hennegau, as lapsed fiefs of the empire, and conferring 
them on his wife (a sister of the Count of Holland, who 
had died without issue). The unconstitutional annexation of 
the Tyrol so disgusted the nobles of Germany, that the pope 
found little difficulty in persuading five of the electors to 
declare the throne vacant, and elect (in 1346) Charles, son 

D of John, king of Bohemia. The Bohemian party, on the 
death of Louis in the following year, elected Count Giin- 
ther of Schwartzburg, who contested the possession of the 
crown until his decease in 1349, when Charles was univer- 
sally recognized as King of Germany. 



B. Kings of the house of Luxemburg. 
265 1. Charles IV. (1347— 1378). After receiving the 



265. §60.] GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 131 

impei-ial crown, through his ambassador, from the hands of (265) 
the pope, Charles devoted his chief attention to the re- A 
moval of the evils necessarily attendant on the ill-defined 
form of election to the imperial throne which had hitherto 
been adopted. For the promotion of this object, he pub- 
lished (at the diets of Nurnberg and Metz, in 1356) a 
document termed the golden bull, in which the mode 
of election, the rights of the electors, and the terms on 
which peace was thenceforth to be maintained in Germany, 
were definitively settled. By this constitution it was pro- b 
vided, that within three months of the death of an emperor, 
the Archbishop of Mainz, as arch-chancellor, should sum- 
mon the seven electors to hold a new election, the result of 
which should be decided by a plurality of votes : that the 
coronation of the sovereign should take place at Aachen; 
the electors should hold the first rank among the dignita- 
ries of the empire, and their territories be indivisible. All 
the other efforts of Charles were directed to the aggran- 
dizement of his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, to which, 
under various pretences, he contrived to annex the March 
of Brandenburg, Silesia, the two Lusaces, and a portion of 
the Upper Palatinate. In pursuance of his plan, he also c 
founded the first German university at Prague (1348), 
which soon numbered from 5000 to 7000 students, in- 
creased the number of convents and churches, promoted 
commerce, agriculture, and mining, effected an improve- 
ment in the framing and administration of the laws, and de- 
molished the robber-castles. The funds necessary for these 
improvements were obtained by granting extensive privi- 
leges to the imperial cities, in return for large sums of 
money, or equivalent advantages. The most important of 
these privileges were, the right of self-taxation, forming 
alliances, and making war and peace; exemption from all 
external jurisdiction and inviolability. During his reign, d 
the influence of the aristocratic order was augmented by 
the addition of five new dukedoms, viz. Mecklenburg, 
Luxemburg, Bar, Liege or Liittich, and Berg; and the 
number of confederacies of towns increased to five, viz. the 
German Hansa, now at the summit of its power, the con- 
federacy of the seven Frieslandic maritime districts, the 
Rhenish, Swiss, and Swabian confederacies; besides 
those of the nobility (the order of St. George, in Swabia ; 



132 THE MIDDLE AGES. [266, 267. § 60. 

A the associations of the Lion and Falcon, &c.) Charles 
was succeeded by his eldest son, the Roman king. 

266 2. Wenzel, or Wenceslaus (1378— 1400), who re- 
tained Bohemia and Silesia, to which the dukedom of Lux- 
emburg was added after the death (without issue) of his uncle 
Wenzel. His brother Sigismund received Brandenburg as 
his portion. The cities and knights having renewed and 
strengthened their confederacies, and a union of the three 
estates, princes, knights, and cities, having been formed in 
Swabia, under the auspices of Count Eberhard of Wurtern- 
berg, Wenceslaus, in order to maintain his influence, esta- 
blished a general union in southern Germany, and placed 

B himself at its head. A plan was already in progress for 
establishing a confederacy of the entire empire, when the dis- 
putes between the nobles and cities occasioned a war, which 
terminated in the defeat of the cities (near Doffingen and 
Worms in 1388). Wenzel now took part with the victorious 
nobles, dissolved the confederacies of the cities, and pro- 
claimed a general peace. About the same time the Swiss 
confederation (which had been recently strengthened by the 
accession of Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Bern) 
defeated their oppressor Leopold of Austria, near Sera- 
pach (1386), chiefly through the patriotic self-sacrifice of 

c Arnold of Winkelried. A second victory, obtained 
in 1388 over the duke's sons at Nafels, secured to the 
Swiss the undisturbed possession of their conquests. The 
capricious tyranny exercised by Wenceslaus in Bohemia, 
where he constantly resided, and his utter indifference to 
the interests of the empire, rendered him an object of 
universal contempt. He was at length imprisoned by his 
brother Sigismund, and set aside by the three spiritual 
electors, who chose the Count Palatine Rupert as his 
successor (1400); but the recognition of this prince was 
by no means universal. 

267 3. Wenzel and Rupert (1400— 1410). An attempt 
D to force his way through Italy to Rome ended in defeat, 

and lost Rupert the confidence of the nation. On his 
return to Germany he endeavored to restore order by 
measures of extreme severity, which were vehemently 
opposed by a confederacy of nobles and cities- After his 
death a double return was made by the electors, one party 
choosing Wenzel's brother Sigismund, Margrave of Bran- 



268. §60.] GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 133 

denburg, and by marriage King of Hungary ; the other (267) 
giving their votes to his cousin Jobst (Jodacus), Margrave A 
of Moravia. Germany had now three kings ; but Jodacus 
dying a few months after his election, Sigismund remained 
undisputed occupant of the throne. 

4. Sigismund, universally recognized from 1410 to 268 
1437. The great object of his reign was the extermina- 
tion of schism. For nearly forty of the seventy years 
during which the popes had been resident at Avignon, it 
had been the practice of the Roman and French colleges of 
cardinals to elect each its own pope. A council held at B 
Pisa in 1409, instead of suppressing, increased this irregu- 
larity, by deposing both Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. , 
and recognizing Alexander V., and after his death 
John XXIII. as sovereign pontiff; but the previously 
elected popes refusing to resign, there were now three rival 
claimants to the papal throne. For the removal of these c 
irregularities, a general council was summoned by the 
emperor (and pope 1) to meet at Constance in 1414. The 
council was divided, for the convenience of voting, into 
four nations — the Italian, French, German, and English, to 
which were afterwards added five votes of the Spaniards. 
Its three principal objects were (1) The entire suppression 
of schism. This was attained by the removal of the three 
rival popes. Benedict XIII. and John XXIII., who had 
fled "from Constance, were deposed ; Gregory XII. abdi- 
cated voluntarily. A new pope, Martin V., was then 
elected. 2. The extirpation of heresy. The writings of d 
the Oxford theologian, John Wickliffe, who had attacked 
not only the system of monachism and the supremacy of 
the pope, but the doctrine of transubstantiation and other 
dogmas of the Church, had been brought to Prague by a 
Bohemian nobleman, Hieronymus, or Jerome, Faulfisch 
(commonly called Jerome of Prague), who had studied at 
Oxford. The Bohemian theologians, who were for the 
most part realists, in opposition to the German nominalists, 1 
eagerly embraced doctrines which accorded so well with 

[' The realists maintained that universal or general ideas of things 
were objective, i. e. independent of the human understanding; the nomi- 
nalists, that they were subjective, i. e. existent only in the mind. — Note 
by the Translator. 



134 THE MIDDLE AGES. [268. § 60. 

(268) their own system. Among their professors was John 

A Huss, who wrote against indulgences, notwithstanding the 
repeated prohibitions of the Archbishop of Prague and the 
pope. Huss appeared before the council, and in direct 
violation of a safe conduct granted to him by Sigismund, 
was condemned as a heretic, and delivered up to the em- 
peror, who commanded him to be burnt, and charged the 
elector palatine with the execution of the sentence. His 
friend, Jerome of Prague, at first recanted, but subsequently 
withdrew his recantation, and suffered the same punish- 

B ment. (3) A thorough reform of the Church. This plan 
almost entirely miscarried through the dissensions of the 
different nations ; a few only of the more pressing demands 
being met by concordats with each nation separately. 
The Hussite war (1420—1436). The disciples of 
Huss (who had also adopted the opinion of Professor 
Jacob of Meiss, that the Holy Communion ought to be 
administered in both kinds to the laity) chose Huss's liege 
lord, Nicholas of Hussinecz, to be their leader, and de- 
manded of Wenceslaus permission to celebrate their service 

c in all the churches. This being refused, they assembled 
on a mountain, to which they gave the name of Tabor, 
placed themselves under the command of a brave knight 
named John Ziska, and stormed the council-house of 
Prague. In the midst of these disorders, Wenceslaus died 
of apoplexy, and was succeeded in his hereditary domi- 
nions by his brother Sigismund. The opposition of the 
Hussites to their new sovereign was even more violent 
than it had been to his predecessor, because it was to him 
that they attributed the murder of their master, Huss. The 

D pope commanded the preaching of a crusade against them ; 
but the Hussites (although divided after Huss's death into 
four parties, viz., the Taborites, Orphans, Horebites, and 
Pragueites) maintained their position in the mountains, 
until they had extorted from the council of Basle permis- 
sion to receive the Holy Communion in both kinds, it being 
at the same time distinctly taught that its reception under 
one form was equally efficacious. The embarrassments in 
which Sigismund was involved, compelled him not only to 
pledge and alienate many of the privileges and possessions 
of the empire, but even to sell his own hereditary margra- 



269, 270. § 60.] Germany and Switzerland. 135 

c 
vate of Brandenburg, with its electoral dignity, to the Bur- (268) 
grave Frederick of Nurnburg, for 400,000 ducats (in the a 
year 1415). 

C. Kings of the house of Austria (from 1438). 

1. Sigismund was succeeded on the German throne, as 269 
well as in Bohemia and Hungary, by his son-in-law, 
Albert of Austria (1438, 1439), who revived the 
question of the division of Germany into circles, which 
was again brought forward by his cousin and successor, 

2. Frederick 111.(1440 — 1493), who undertook the 270 
guardianship of Ladislaus, the infant son of Albert II. b 
But the want of unanimity among the nobles rendered such 

a measure impracticable, and also prevented, at a sub- 
sequent period, the accomplishment of a plan for the esta- 
blishment of an imperial chamber of justice. Proclamations, 
it is true, were issued from time to time, strictly enjoining 
peace throughout the empire ; but the feuds of her nobles 
still continued to exhaust the energies of Germany. In c 
conjunction with Zurich (which had quarrelled withSchwyz 
respecting the county of Toggenburg), Frederick at the 
head of an army of French mercenaries, the Armagnacs, 
entered Switzerland, in the hope of recovering the Austrian 
provinces which had been wrested from Leopold, but was 
compelled, after sustaining two defeats, to confirm the con- 
federates in the possession of the conquered territory. The 
council of Basle, which had attempted to reduce the power 
and revenues of the papal see, was vehemently resisted by 
Pope Eugenius IV., who summoned another council to 
meet at Ferrara. In consequence of this proceeding, the d 
council of Basle elected a rival pope (Felix V.); but the 
conclusion of the concordat of Aschaffenburg, or Vienna, 
by Frederick II. (through his private secretary iEneas 
Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pius II.) with Pope 
Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV., restored to 
the pope most of the rights of which he had been deprived 
by the council, which soon afterwards dissolved itself, and 
also persuaded itscreature, Felix V., to abdicate. A cru- 
sade against the Turks, who had taken Constantinople, and 
now threatened the western empire, was in vain proclaimed 
by the pope and emperor. Frederick, the last emperor 



136 THE MIDDLE AGES. [271. §61. 

(270) who received the imperial crown at Rome, increased his 
A hereditary possessions by (]) sharing with his brother 
Albert the dukedom of Austria, vacant by the death of the 
young Ladislaus (son of Albert II.). After his brother's 
death, Frederick became sole duke of Austria ; but the 
Bohemians and Hungarians elected two native kings, the 
former George Podiebrad, and the latter Matthias Cor- 
vinus, both of whom successfully resisted the attempts of 
the emperor to reduce them to submission. In the year 
1485, Corvinus took possession of Austria, which he 
B retained until his death (in 1490). 2. But the most im- 
portant acquisition of territory was that of the Netherlands 
and Burgundy, by the marriage of his son Maximilian with 
Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy 
(1477). The possession of these territories was success- 
fully maintained by Maximilian in a war with France. 



§ 61. The States of Italy. 

A. In Upper Italy. 

271 4. Venice, which had been raised by the crusades to 
c the rank of a first-rate commercial and naval power, and 
possessed most of the islands and maritime towns of the 
Byzantine empire, was engaged for 125 years in a war 
with Genoa (1256 — 1381) respecting the trade of the 
Black Sea. At the end of that period a peace was con- 
cluded at Turin, on terms advantageous to Venice. The 
most palmy days of the republic were in the first half of 
the fifteenth century, when a monopoly of the Indian trade, 
by way of Egypt, was secured to her by a treaty with the 
Sultan of Egypt, an increase of territory obtained in Upper 
Italy and Dalmatia (partly by treaties and partly by con- 
quest), and the islands of Corfu aud Cyprus added to her 
D possessions. Most of these Greek dominions were after- 
wards wrested from them by the Turks; and the discoveiy 
of a new passage to the East Indies destroyed their mono- 
poly of the Indian trade, and completed their ruin. The 
sovereign authority was in the hands of a great council of 
480 members, who at first were chosen annually by the 
people out of the entire body of citizens, but at a later 
period (1297) the right of sitting in the council being con- 



272 — 274. §61.] the states of italy. 137 

fined to the actual members and their families, an hereditary a 
aristocracy was created. 

2. In Milan, the struggle between the Ghibelline no- 272 
bles, headed by the family of Visconti, and the Guelphic 
burghers, supported by the family of Delia Torre, was 
terminated by Henry VII. , who expelled the Torre, and 
nominated Matteo Visconti imperial lieutenant (vicar) of 
Milan (1310). The conquest of several neighboring cities 
enabled Visconti to increase the possessions of his house, 
which under John Galeazzo Visconti (who obtained the 
grant of an hereditary dukedom from Wenceslaus) was 
owner of almost the whole of Upper Italy. After the b 
extinction of the male line of the Visconti, the supreme 
authority was conferred on Francesco Sforza, a mercenary 
soldier in the Milanese service, who made the dukedom 
hereditary in his family. 

3. The republic of Genoa acquired some maritime 273 
towns and considerable commercial advantages in con- 
sequence of the restoration of the Greek empire. The 
conclusion of a struggle of 200 years with Pisa, placed ate 
their disposal the greater part of Corsica and Sardinia ; 
but their long war with Venice, and still more their own 
intestine feuds, so weakened them, that they were com- 
pelled to submit sometimes to Milanese, sometimes to 
French domination. 

B. In Central Italy. 

1 . In F 1 o r e n c e the people, or guilds, after a long strug- 274 
gle with the nobles, obtained the ascendency, conquered the 
neighboring districts, and divided themselves into three 
classes, viz. higher and lower guilds, and commons, i. e. 
persons not belonging to any guild. The members of the d 
higher guilds were, generally speaking, bankers; hence 
arose an aristocracy of wealth, headed in the fifteenth cen- 
tury by the rich and powerful family of the Medici. The 
foundation of their importance was laid by John di Me- 
dici, the wealthiest banker of Florence. His son Cosmo 
(1429 — 1464) was driven into exile by the jealousy of the 
other bankers, but within a year he was recalled, and 
honored with the title of father of his country, a distinc- 
tion richly merited by his political sagacity and liberal 



138 THE MIDDLE AGES. [275 279. §62. 

(274) patronage of the fine arts. Not only in Florence and 
A Tuscany, but in Umbria, Venice, and even in Jerusalem, 
the most magnificent works of architecture, sculpture, and 
painting, bore witness to his exquisite taste. His son 
Peter died soon after his father (1469), to whom he bore 
little resemblance, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, whose 
munificent patronage of the arts and sciences elevated 
Florence to the rank of a second Athens (1469 — 1492). 

275 2. States of the Church. During the residence of 
Bthe popes at Avignon (1305 — 1376) several cities, prin- 
cipally in the March of Ancona, threw off the papal yoke, 
and placed themselves under the control of tyrants. Even 
Rome itself was distracted by frequent revolutions (in one 
of which a plebeian named Cola Rienzi assumed the title 
of tribune), and by the feuds of the Colonna (Ghibellines) 
and Ursini (Guelphs). It was not until the end of this 
period that the States of the Church were'Te-united. Avig- 
non was added to them by purchase in 1348. 

C. In Lower Italy. 

276 !• In Naples, the house of Anjou occupied the throne 
c until 1442, when the country was conquered by Alfonso V. 

of Arragon, who already possessed Sicily. At his death 
Alfonso bequeathed Naples, as a separate kingdom, to his 
natural son Ferdinand, whose posterity continued to reign 
until the year 1504. 

277 2. Sicily remained a distinct kingdom under the sons 
of Peter III. of Arragon and their successors, until the 
extinction of the family, when it was united to Arragon. 

§ 62. France. 

A. Under the last Capets 

(1270—1328). 

278 10. Philip III. (1270—1285), after the death of his 
D father, withdrew his army from Tunis, married his son 

Philip to Johanna, heiress of Navarre, and died on his 
return from an unsuccessful expedition against Arragon. 

279 11. Philip IV., Le Bel (1285— 1314), king also of 
Navarre, in right of his wife Johanna. This monarch, the 
distinguishing features of whose character were ambition, 



280, 281. §62.] France. 139 

cunning, avarice, and cruelty, obtained possession of Gui- (279) 
enne (which he afterwards restored) during a war with A 
England, occasioned by a quarrel between some English 
and French sailors. A successful insurrection of the Flem- 
ings, at that time allies of England, compelled him to 
abandon Flanders, which had also fallen into his hands. 
Pope Boniface VIII., who had excommunicated Philip for 
extorting contributions from the clergy for the prosecution 
of this war, was seized by the king's servants, and died of 
grief. The next pope but one, Clement V. (Archbishop 
of Bourdeaux), established himself at Avignon, which con- 
tinued to be the papal residence from 1305 to 137G. As 
cruel persecution was carried on against the Knights Tem- 
plars, whose wealth had excited the cupidity of Philip. 
After a long but most unfair trial, many members of the 
order were condemned to be burnt, on the evidence of 
perjured witnesses, or after confessions extorted by the 
rack. The order itself was entirely suppressed by Pope 
Clement V. (at the council of Vienne). 

After the death of Philip IV. the crown was worn in 280 
rapid succession by his three sons, Louis X., Philip V. c 
(who persuaded the estates of his kingdom to pass an act 
excluding females from the throne), and Charles IV., who 
died without male issue, and was succeeded by his cousin, 
Philip of Valois. Navarre was settled on Johanna, daugh- 
ter of Louis X., and was not re-united to France until the 
accession of the Bourbons in 1589. 



B. Under kings of the house of Valois 
(1328—1589). 

Louis IX. 281 

. A . 

Philip III. Robert de Clermont, 

founder of the Bourbon 



Philip IV. Charles of Valois. family. 



Louis X.,Philip V.,CharlesIV., Isabella Philip VI. 

mar. 
Johanna. Edward II., 

King of England. 

Edward III. 



140 THE MIDDLE AGES. [282—284. §62. 

282 I. Philip VI. (1328—1350). The claims to the 
A throne of France advanced by Edward III., as grandson of 

Philip IV., on the ground that his mother alone, and not 
her male issue, was excluded from the succession, occa- 
sioned a war between England and France, which lasted 
more' than a hundred years (1339 — 1453). Edward III. 
(who had assumed the title of King of France) formed an 
alliance with the Flemings, under Artevelde, a brewer of 
Ghent, and the Count of Artois, who had been expelled 
from France for forgery, and obtained a splendid naval 
B victory offSluys (1340); then landed in Normandy with 
his son, Edward the Black Prince, defeated the French at 
Cressy (1346), and took Calais, which was entirely colo- 
nized by the English, and remained in their possession 
until the year 1558. Philip added Dauphine, Champagne, 
and Brie, to the possessions of the French crown. The 
right of voting grants of the public money was conceded 
by him to the estates of the realm. He died during an 
armistice with England. 

283 2. John the Good (1350 — 1364) was defeated by 
c the Black Prince at Maupertuis, near Poitiers (1356), 

where he was taken prisoner with his youngest son Philip, 
and conveyed to London. During his captivity a demo- 
cratic party was formed at Paris by Marcel, president of 
the Parisian guild of merchants, whilst almost at the same 
time a disturbance broke out in the north of France, among 
the peasants (Jaquerie), who were grievously oppressed by 
the nobles. After defeating these undisciplined bands, the 
nobles tendered their services to Prince Charles, who 
obtained quiet possession of Paris after the assassination 
D of Marcel. A peace was concluded at Bretigny (near 
Chartres), on the following terms, — Edward III. received 
Guienne, Poitou, Calais, &c, as souverain possessions, in 
return for his renunciation of the title of King of France, 
and of the provinces formerly held by England. On the 
other hand, King John agreed to pay a considerable ransom 
for his liberation: but this not being forthcoming, he re. 
turned to London, where he died a prisoner, after bestow, 
ing the vacant dukedom of Burgundy on his youngest son, 
Philip the Hardy. 

284 3. Charles V., the Wise (1364—1380). His distin 
guished general, Bertrand du Guesclin, cleared the kingdom 



285, 286. § 62.] France. 141 

of marauding bands of mercenaries, whom he led into Spain, (284) 
where a disputed succession to the Castilian throne had a 
occasioned a civil war. The same general, in a war which 
soon afterwards broke out between France and England, 
wrested from the English crown all its possessions in France 
except Calais and a part of Guienne. 

4. Charles VI. (1380—1422) at first, on account of 285 
his minority, and afterwards of his imbecility, 1 was placed B 
under the guardianship of his uncles the Dukes of Berry 
and Burgundy, whose right to this office was vehemently 
contested by the Duke of Orleans, brother to the king. 
These conflicting claims occasioned the formation of two 
parties, one of which sided with Burgundy, whilst the other 
(headed by the Compte d'Armagnac) supported the Duke of 
Orleans. After the assassination of Orleans, a bloody civil 
war raged between the two factions, during which the 
English again entered France and gained the victory of 
Azincourt (1415). The Burgundian party obtained pos- c 
session of the city of Paris, which they held until the death 

of the Duke of Burgundy, who was assassinated by the 
attendants of the Dauphin, on the bridge of Montereau (on 
the Yonne). His son, Philip the Good, of Burgundy, im- 
plored the assistance of Henry V. of England, who entered 
Paris, married Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., and was 
proclaimed heir-presumptive to the throne of France; but 
died before Charles, leaving an infant son. Two months 
after his decease Charles died also, and was succeeded by 
the Dauphin as 

5. Charles VII. (1422— 1461), whilst at the same 286 
time Henry VI. of England was proclaimed king in the north d 
of France. After sustaining two defeats, Charles was com- 
pelled to cross the Loire, and the city of Orleans was on the 
eve of surrendering to the English, when a peasant girl 
named Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, a native of Dom 
Remy, near Vaucouleurs, in Champagne, placed herself at 
the head of the French army, and compelled the English to 
raise the siege (1429). Then she conducted Charles VII. 

in triumph to the city of Rheims, where he was crowned; 
but falling (1430) into the hands of her enemies during 

1 Cards were invented, it is said, for the amusement of Charles VI. 



142 THE MIDDLE AGES. [287. §62. 

(286) the siege of Compiegne, she was tried for witchcraft, and 

a burnt at Rouen, on the 30th of May, 1431. A recon- 
ciliation was effected between the Duke of Burgundy and 
Charles VII., the city of Pai'is surrendering to the king, 
whilst the English, deprived of Normandy and Guienne, 
were compelled, after a fruitless struggle, to content them- 
selves with the possession of Calais and the Channel 
Islands. The war was terminated, without any formal 
conclusion of peace, in consequence of the struggles be- 
tween the factions of the red and white roses in England. 
The organization of some companies of cavalry, and of the 
francs- arc hers, or free sharpshooters, as a body of infantry, 

B laid the foundation of a standing army. The influence 
exercised over the mind of the king by his mistress, Agnes 
Sorel, occasioned an estrangement between Charles and 
the Dauphin, who sought an asylum at the court of the 
Duke of Burgundy, after an unsuccessful attempt to de- 
prive his father of the crown. 
287. 6. Louis "XI. (1461 — 1483) attempted to establish the 
absolute power of the crown by the following measures: 
1 . All the servants of his father were dismissed, and their 
places supplied by persons who were indebted for their 
advancement solely to Louis himself. 2. The estates of 
the different provinces were convoked instead of the great 
council of estates of the realm. 3. Measures were adopted 
for humbling the princes of the blood, and two great vassals 

c of the crown, the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany. The 
result of this policy was the formation of a league, termed 
"la ligue du bien public," between the disgraced ministers 
of the crown and the two dukes, who compelled the king, 
after an indecisive battle at Montlheri, to make important 
concessions, which he afterwards refused to ratify. The 
league was soon afterwards dissolved through the intrigues 
of Louis, by whom the Liegeois were urged to make 

D repeated incursions into the Burgundian territory. During 
one of these inroads, Louis, who had rashly visited the 
Duke of Burgundy at Peronne, was detained a prisoner, 
and only released on condition of granting several impor- 
tant immunities to his powerful vassal. In revenge, Louis, 
during the absence of Charles the Bold (who was engaged, 
as protector of the Archbishop of Cologne, in reducing the 
revolted city of Neuss), stirred up the inhabitants of Loi'- 



288, 289. § 62.] England and Scotland. 143 

raine and the Swiss to make war on Burgundy. After re- (287) 
ducing Lorraine, Charles marched into Switzerland, where A 
he was defeated at Granson and Murten, in 1476. 
The Duke of Lorraine, who had been deprived of his 
dominions, was restored by the Swiss ; and Charles, in an 
attempt to avenge this insult, lost his life before Nancy 
in 1477. The dukedom of Burgundy lapsed, as a void b 
male fief, to the crown of France; but the numerous Ger- 
man seignories which had been incorporated with Burgundy 
by marriage, purchase, and inheritance, and even some of 
the smaller French fiefs, were afterwards acquired by 
Austria, through the marriage of the Archduke Maximilian 
with Mary of Burgundy, daughter and sole heiress of 
Charles the Bold. The death of his brother enabled Louis 
to annex Guienne and Normandy to France; and when 
the house of Anjou became extinct, he inherited Anjou, 
Provence, and Maine, together with the claims of that 
family to the Neapolitan throne. His son, 

7. Charles VIII. (1483— 1498) conquered Naples, 288 
but was compelled to abandon his conquest by the .united c 
forces of the pope, the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand 
the Catholic, the Duke of Milan, and the Republic of 
Venice. With him expired the elder line of the house of 
Valois. 



§ 63. England and Scotland. 

A. Kings of the house of Plantagenet. 

5. Edward I. (1272—1307) annexed Wales to the 289 
English crown. His son Edward assumed the title of d 
Prince of Wales, which has ever since been borne by the 
heir-apparent. The extinction of the dynasty of the house 
of Kenneth (1286) was followed by the disputes of thir- 
teen claimants to the Scottish throne, among whom the 
most powerful were Balliol and Bruce. Edward, as feudal 
sovereign of Scotland, decided this dispute by placing 
John Balliol on the throne ; but the new king immediately 
renounced his allegiance to the crown of England, and 
was deposed by Edward, who subdued Scotland, but died 
during a campaign against Robert Bruce, who had been 
crowned by the insurgent Scots. 



144 THE MIDDUE AGES. [290,291. §63. 

(289) 6. Edward II. (1307— 1327), son-in-law of Philip IV. 
A of France. The feeble government of this monarch, who 
was a mere tool in the hands of unworthy favorites, 
encouraged the nobles to resist the authority of the crown, 
whilst at the same lime the Scotch not only maintained 
their independence, but even made frequent incursions into 
England, and at length compelled the king to grant an 
armistice. His wife Isabella, who had visited France, in 
.the hope of putting an end to a war which had broken out 
between Edward and her brother Charles IV., conspired 
with her paramour Mortimer against the unfortunate king, 
and having landed in England at the head of some Nether- 
landish troops, and gained over a majority of the nobles 
and the rabble of London, she compelled the parliament 
to depose Edward (who was soon afterwards brutally 
murdered) and to proclaim his son 

290 7. Edward III. (1327—1337), who emancipated him- 
B self from all control by hanging Mortimer, and banishing 

his mother from court. After the death of the Scotch 
king, Robert Bruce (f 1329), his son David was called to 
the throne, but was soon compelled by the English to 
abdicate in favor of Edward Balliol, who consented to 
recognize the supremacy of Edward III. The disputes 
respecting the right to the Scottish throne continued until 
c the accession of the Stuarts in 1371. The frequent pecu- 
niary embarrassments, occasioned by the expenses of a war 
with France, compelled Edward to convoke his parliament 
seventy times. During this reign the great council of the 
nation was first divided into the Upper House (prelates 
and barons), and the Lower (inferior nobles and represen- 
tatives of cities). 

291 8. Richard II. (1377—1399), son of the Black 
d Prince, suppressed an insurrection of the people, occa- 
sioned by the oppressive system of taxation; but after- 
wards became the slave of unworthy favorites, and was 
deprived of almost all his authority by his uncle the Duke 
of Gloucester and a commission of regency. The reins of 
government were again placed in his hands by the parlia- 
ment, and a second time wrested from him by Henry, 
duke of Lancaster (a grandson of Edward III., who 
had been banished by Richard). The unfortunate king 



292, 293. § 63.] eng-Eand and Scotland. 145 

was taken prisoner, and compelled by the parliament to (291) 
abdicate in favor of his rival. A 



B. Three kings of the house of Lancaster, 

a collateral branch of the house of Planlagenet. 

(1399—1461.) 

1. Henry IV. (1399 — 1413.) His reign was dis- 292 
turbed by repeated conspiracies, all of which were rendered b 
abortive by the courage and sagacity of the king. His 
brave son, 

2. Henry V., obtained a brilliant victory over the 293 
French at Agincourt, and conquered Normandy. He 
married the daughter of Charles VI., and was nominated 
successor to the French throne after the death of his father- 
in-law, but died before him, and was succeeded by his 
infant son. 



146 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 



[294. §63. 



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295 — 297. §63.] England and Scotland. 147 

3. Henry VI. (1422 — 1461), who assumed the title 295 
of King of France, but was soon deprived of all his pos- a 
sessions in that country, with the exception of Calais and 
the Channel Islands. These losses, added to the disgust 
occasioned by the conduct of the king's favorites, pro- 
duced an opposition in parliament, headed by his cousin, 
Richard duke of York, who claimed the crown as a de- 
scendant of the second son of Edward III., the house of 
Lancaster tracing its descent from the third. This dispute 
occasioned the wars of the red (Lancaster) and white 
(York) roses. Richard was nominated protector during 
the insanity of the king, but refused to resign the office 
on his recovery. Two battles were then fought (at St. B 
Alban's in 1455, and Northampton in 1460), in each of 
which the king was taken prisoner, but released ; and 
finally, he agreed to abdicate in favor of Richard. The 
war having been renewed by the queen, Margaret of Anjou, 
Richard was slain in the battle of Wakefield. His son 
Edward then assumed the title of king, and defeated the 
Lancastrian party near Towton. 



C. Three kings of the house of York. 
(1461—1485.) 

1. Edward IV. (1461—1483.) After an ineffectual 296 
attempt to replace her husband on the throne by means of c 
French troops, Margaret formed an alliance with the Earl 

of Warwick (who had been ill-treated by Edward, and had 
taken refuge in France), and with his son-in-law, the 
Duke of Clarence. Warwick returned to England, de- 
posed Edward, and reseated Henry on the throne (1470); 
but in the following year, Edward, who was supported by 
his brother-in-law, Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, re- 
appeared in England, and defeated the forces of Warwick 
and Margaret. Henry VI. died suddenly in the Tower 
(possibly by the dagger of Richard, duke of Gloucester), 
and the house of Lancaster became extinct, with the ex 
ception of Henry Tudor, who fled to Brittany. 

2. Edward V. (1483), soon after his father's death, 297 
was set aside by his guardian and uncle, Richard of Glou- d 
cester, who ascended the throne as 



148 THE MIDDLE AGES. [298—301. §64,65. 

298 3. Richard III. (1483— 1485.) In the year 1485 he 
A was slain at the battle of Bosworth, and Henry Tudor 

(earl of Richmond) as King Henry VII., reconciled the 
conflicting claims of the two houses, by a marriage with 
Elizabeth of York. 

§ 64. The Pyrencean Peninsula. 

299 The only possession which still remained (in 1237) in 
the hands of the Moors, was the little kingdom of Granada, 
generally dependent on Castile, but enjoying considerable 
political, agricultural, and commercial prosperity, until its 
union with Castile (in consequence of a disputed succes- 
sion) in 1492. 

300 The two Christian kingdoms— Arragon (to which 
B Sardinia, and afterwards Sicily, and, for a short time, 

Naples, were annexed, and which was partly governed by 
a peculiar magistracy (the Justitia), acting as a mediator 
between the king and the estates of his realm) and Cas- 
tile, were united in 1479, by the marriage of Ferdinand 
of Arragon with Isabella, the heiress of Castile. Each 
kingdom retained the constitution by which it had been 
governed previously to the union. Granada was added in 
1492. Navarre, which had been annexed at an early period 
to France, was settled in 1316 on Johanna, daughter of 
Louis X.,and became thenceforward a separate independent 
c kingdom. In Portugal, after the extinction of the legitimate 
Burgundian line in 1383, a new dynasty was founded by 
John I., a natural son of Peter I. In the fifteenth century 
Madeira, the Azores, the Cape Verd Islands, and the coast 
of Guinea, were discovered by Henry the Voyager (third 
son of John I.). In 1486, Bartholomew Diaz reached the 
cabo tormentoso, afterwards named by John II. cabo de 
bonna esperanza (Cape of Good Hope). 



B. The East. 
§ 65. The Byzantine empire under the Palceologi. 
(1261—1453.) 
301 Under the dynasty of the Palasologi, the fragments of the 
D ancient Byzantine empire were re- united, with the exception 



302, 303. § 66, 67.] Byzantine empire. 149 

of a few small independent seignories, which had been (301) 
established by the Latin knights ; but the government of A 
sovereigns, of whom the majority were feeble-minded and 
incapable, and whose administration was frequently embar- 
rassed by civil wars, ecclesiastical disputes, and court- 
intrigues, opposed but an ineffectual barrier to the ad- 
vancing tide of Ottoman encroachment. An unsuccessful 
attempt was made to obtain assistance from the West, by a 
union of the Greek and Latin Churches, and the empire 
was now on the verge of destruction, when an invasion of 
the Mongols withheld their enemies for a time ; but the 
respite was of short duration, for on the 29th of May, 
1453, Constantinople, after a short siege, surrendered to 
Mohammed II. The empire, also, of Trebizond, and all B 
the smaller Greek states in the islands, the Morea, Epirus, 
and Attica, fell into the hands of the conqueror. The 
kingdom of Cyprus alone became a dependency of the re- 
public of Venice. 

§ 66. The Osmans. 

An independent empire was founded in the fourteenth 302 
century, on the ruins of the Seldschuk kingdom of Iconium, c 
by Osman, emir of a nomadic tribe. Its boundaries, 
which at first comprehended only Bithynia, were rapidly 
extended, until they embraced the greater part of Asia 
Minor and Thrace. Adrianople became the imperial resi- 
dence in 1365. The Osmans had already compelled 
Macedonia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia, to ac- 
knowledge their supremacy, and were advancing into 
Styria, after a victory over Sigismund, king of Hungary, 
near Nicopolis in 1396, when they were themselves de- 
feated in the East by the great Mongol conqueror, Timur D 
Lenk (Tamerlane). Notwithstanding, however, this check, 
the power of the Osmans was speedily re-established, and 
in the year 1453, Mohammed II. became master of the 
Byzantine empire and the empire of Trebizond (see § 65), 
Servia, Wallachia, Bosnia, Albania, and several settlements 
of the Genoese on the Black Sea. 

§ 67. The Mongols. 

The Mongols became again a formidable power under 303 
Timur L e n k, or Tamerlane, a descendant of Dschingis 



150 THE MIDDLE AGES. [304, 305. § 68, 69. 

(303) Khan (1369 — 1405), who founded a kingdom at Samar- 
A cand, in great Bucharia, and thence carried on successful 
wars against Persia, a portion of India, and Natolia; 
sacked Moscow and Asof in Russia, and died on an expe- 
dition against the Chinese. After his death, this mighty 
empire, which extended from the wall of China and the 
Ganges to the shores of the Mediterranean, was split into 
a number of petty principalities. 

C. The north-east of Europe. 
§ 68. Scandinavia. 

304 Denmark, at the commencement of this period, was 
b divided (among the sons of Eric IV.) into several prin- 
cipalities, which were re-united by Waldemar III., after 
the loss of Esthonia. Margaret, daughter of this sove- 
reign, married Haco VIII., King of Norway, and after the 
deaths of her father and husband, governed the two king- 
doms as guardian of her son Olaf, whose early decease 

c placed both Denmark and Norway at her absolute dis- 
posal. In Sweden, which at an earlier period had been 
united to Norway (from 1319 to 1365), the estates, dis- 
gusted at the avarice of their king (Albert, a prince of 
Mecklenburg), offered the crown to Margaret of Denmark. 
Thus the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Sweden, Den- 
mark, and Norway, were united (by the treaty of C a 1 m a r, 
1397) under one sovereign, each, nevertheless, retaining 
its own parliament and code of laws. Margaret was suc- 
ceeded by Eric of Pomerania, her sister's grandson, and his 

D nephew Christopher of Bavaria. The throne of Denmark 
and Norway was then filled by Christian I. (of the house 
of Oldenburg), who had married Christopher's widow. 
Schleswig and Holstein were soon added by inheritance to 
the possessions of the new royal house, which was either 
not recognized at all in Sweden, or compelled to intrust 
the administration of that kingdom to a native viceroy, or 
president. 

§ 69. Russia. 

305 Russia, where the grand principality of Wladimir (which 
comprised also Novgorod) was united to Moskwa, or Mos- 
cow, in 1328, was deprived by the Lithuanians and Poles 



306, 307. § 70.] RUSSIA— POLAND. 151 

(during the period of its dependence on the Mongol empire) (305) 
of several of its western provinces, such as Volhynia, Kiev, A 
Podolia, Red and White Russia; but after several long 
and bloody struggles (during which a brilliant victory was 
obtained on the Don, by Demetrius Donski, and successful 
resistance was offered to the attacks of Timur), the Rus- 
sians under Ivan the Great emancipated themselves from 
the tyranny of the (so called) golden Horde in Kaptschak. 
The Khanate of Kaptschak was then divided into four 
kingdoms (Crim, Astrachan, Kasan, and Turan). Ivan the B ■ 
Great, the real founder of the Russian empire, extended 
his dominions to the borders of Lithuania, exacted tribute 
from the Khanate of Kasan, laid the foundation of an im- 
proved constitution, and was the first Russian sovereign 
who assumed the title of Czar. 

§ 70. Poland. 

1. Under the Piasts (840 — 1386), who re-assumed the 306 
title of king in 1320, Great Poland (on the Lower Warthe), c 
and Little Poland (on the Upper Vistula, or Cracow and 
Sendomir) were united, Cracow being the place appointed 

for the coronation of the Polish kings. Casimir the Great, 
the last king of the Piast male line, was deprived of Silesia 
by Bohemia, and of Pomerella by the knights of the Teu- 
tonic order ; but on the other hand, Galicia, or Red Russia, 
Podolia, and the feudal sovereignty of Masovia, were 
acquired by this monarch, who greatly improved the con- 
dition of his people by the establishment of a supreme 
court of justice and a university at Cracow, and by a 
succession of benefits conferred on the citizen and peasant 
estates (hence his title of the "peasant's king"). Casimir 
was succeeded by his sister's son, Lewis the Great, king 
of Hungary, who secured the succession for one of his 
daughters, by granting various important privileges to the 
nobility. Lithuania, which since the Mongol invasion had d 
become an independent government, was re-united to 
Poland by the marriage of Hedwig (youngest daughter of 
the king of Poland) to Jagello, duke of Lithuania, who was 
baptized (with all his subjects), and assumed the name of 
Wladislaw II. 

2. Under the descendants of Jagello (1386 — 



152 THE MIDDLE AGES. [308,309. §71,72. 

307 1572), Wladislaw II. was compelled to recognize the right 
A of election claimed by the estates, and to allow the Lithu- 
anians grand dukes of their own, subject to the supremacy 
of the Polish crown (— 1502). In the year 1410 Wla- 
dislaw defeated the Teutonic order at Tannenberg, and 
obtained possession (by the peace of Thorn) of Samogitia, 
to which by a second peace, concluded at the same place 
(in 1466), Casimir II. added West Prussia, and the feudal 
sovereignty of East Prussia. Thus the kingdom of Poland 
extended from the Black Sea to the Baltic. 

§ 71. Prussia under the Teutonic order. 

308 The Teutonic order, which since the year 1309 had 
b been settled at Marienburg, had acquired, partly by con- 
quest and partly by purchase, Pomerella, Esthonia, Neu- 
mark, and Samogitia, so that its empire at last compre- 
hended the entire coast of the Baltic from Dantzic to 
Narva, with the islands of Gothland and Oesel. The 
golden period of this dynasty was from 1351 to 1382, un- 
der the Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode ; but a single 
defeat at Tannenberg, in 1419 (which terminated the 
war between the Lithuanians and Poles), completely shat- 
tered its power, although the brave defence of Marienburg, 
by Henry von Plauen, obtained for it (at the peace of 
Thorn, in 1411, see § 70) more favorable terms than could 

c reasonably have been anticipated. The insufferable 
tyranny of the order was soon afterwards resisted by a 
confederacy of nobles and cities (at Marienwerder), which 
publicly repudiated its authority, and sought the protection 
of Poland. After a twelve years' war with the confeder- 
ation and Poland, a second peace was concluded at Thorn 
in 1466, the order ceding Western Prussia to Poland, and 

D consenting to hold Eastern Prussia as a Polish fief. The 
head-quarters of the order were transferred to Konigsberg. 
Until the year 1513 Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland, 
were governed by the provincial grand master of the Or- 
der of the Sword, subject to the supreme authority of the 
Teutonic order. 

§ 72. Hungary. 

309 Scarcely had Hungary (including Transylvania, Scla- 
vonia, Croatia, and Bosnia) begun to recover from the 



310. §73.] PRUSSIA HUNGARY. 153 

effects of the Mongol invasions, when the extinction of (309) 
the Arpad dynasty occasioned fresh struggles, which ter- a 
minated at length in the accession of a prince of the 
House of Anjou, Charles Robert (1308 — 1342), a 
great-grandson of Stephen V., whose vigorous govern- 
ment, followed by the wise administration of his son 
Lewis the Great, raised Hungary to a position which she 
had never before occupied. Lewis the Great (1342 — 
1382), by the acquisition of Dalmatia, the feudal supre- 
macy of Servia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia, and 
finally of the crown of Poland (as nephew and heir of 
Casimir III.), became the most powerful monarch of 
Europe. He was succeeded, after a short struggle be- B 
tween rival candidates, by his son-in-law Sigismund, a 
prince of the house of Luxemburg (1387 — 1437), who 
was too feeble either to maintain the prerogative of the 
crown against rebels at home, or to protect the kingdom 
from foreign enemies. The short reigns of his son-in-law 
Albert of Austria, and the King of Poland, were fol- 
lowed by the accession of Albert's posthumous son Ladis- 
laus, who was succeeded by a native prince, Matthias Cor- 
vinns (son of the brave Hunyad, regent of the kingdom 
during Albert's minority). His violation of the conditions c 
to which he had solemnly pledged himself at his election 
so .offended the electors, that they offered the crown to 
the Emperor Frederick III.; but the claims of this new 
candidate were successfully resisted by Matthias, whose 
victories over the Osmans, Bohemians, and the emperor, 
procured for himself and his kingdom a reputation, which 
was maintained by the establishment of a standing army, 
the encouragement which he afforded to artists and learned 
men, and the great improvement effected (though not 
without the imposition of heavy taxes) in every branch of 
the administration. 

§ 73. Religion, Arts, Sciences, 8fC, during the Fourth 
Period. 

1. The Church. Lithuania, the last heathen nation of 310 
Europe, had embraced, as we have seen, the Christian d 
religion, and discoveries on the western coast of Africa 
were preparing the way for its reception in a quarter of the 
globe still more barbarous. During this period the influ- 
7* 



154 THE MIDDLE AGES. [311. §73. 

(310) ence of the papacy, although never lost, was grievously 
a endangered by the disputes of the pope with Philip IV. of 
France and Louis the Bavarian, as well as by the teaching 
of Wickliffe and Huss, and more than all, by the seventy 
years' residence of the popes at Avignon, the forty years' 
schism, and the contest between the council of Basle and 
Eugene IV. The great object of that council, as well as 
of the council of Constance, had been the limitation of the 
papal power; but the hopes of ecclesiastical reform, which 
thousands had cherished at the opening of the latter, had 
vanished long before the termination of its session. A 
terrible pestilence, termed the "Black Death," which 
devastated western Europe in the fourteenth century, occa- 
sioned the formation of societies of both sexes for the care 

B of the sick and the burial of the dead. Renewed attempts 
to re-unite the Greek and Latin churches were successful 
to a certain extent, a convention having been executed by 
representatives of the two parties, at a synod held at 
Florence; but the proceedings of the synod were never 
recognized either by the people, or those of the clergy 
who remained at Constantinople. 
311 2. Political Constitution. The spirit of political 

c combination, which had been awakened in the preceding 
century, continued to spread, particularly in Germany, 
where confederacies of cities, nobles, &c, manifested the 
extent of its influence. In France, the power of the king 
was steadily augmented by the acquisition of crown lands, 
whilst the reverse was the case in Germany, where the 
narrow-minded personal ambition of the emperors led 
them to seek the aggrandizement of their own families at 
the expense of the imperial prerogative, which was weak- 
ened by their reckless grants of immunities and revenues 
to cities and nobles, in return for some personal benefit. 

D By this policy the German empire was split into a number 
of petty principalities, forming a sort of federal republic, 
with an elective president at its head. In Italy, a system 
of political counterpoise was maintained, chiefly by means 
of Florence, which occupied a middle position between the 
commonwealth of the north (Venice and Milan), and the 
absolute monarchies of the south (States of the Church and 
Naples). The constitution of the east was a military 
despotism. At this period the most remarkable pecu- 



312. §73.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 155 

liarity in the administration of justice, was the existence of (311) 
the Free Court, or Vehmgericht of Westphalia, a dark and a 
mysterious tribunal, which judged in secret, and soon 
spread over the whole of Germany. The origin, charac- 
ter, limits, and regulations of this institution, are involved 
in impenetrable obscurity. 

3. In the Sciences, three causes united to produce 312 
new life : (1) the rapid increase in the number of universi- 
ties, of which more than fifty were founded at this period 
(in Germany: Prague, 1348; Vienna, 1365; Heidelberg, 
1386; Cologne, 1388; Erfurt; and in the fifteenth cen- 
tury, Wijrtzburg, Leipzic, Rostock, Greifswalde, Freiburg, 
Treves, Ingoldstadt, and Mainz) : (2) ike revival of the 
study of classical literature. The attempted reconciliation B 
between the Eastern and Western Churches, and still more, 
the conquest of the Byzantine empire by the Turks, had 
inundated Italy with a host of learned Greeks, who brought 
with them their literary treasures, and were installed as 
professors of their native language at the universities, or 
found an honorable asylum in the palaces of the 'Medici 
and other noble Italian families. Thus a better taste in c 
literature was introduced and propagated through the 
exertions of these illustrious foreigners and their native 
disciples, Joh. Boccaccio, Laurentius Valla, Marcilius Fici- 
nus,- &c. ; and the German writers, Agricola and Reuchlin. 
At the same time academies, or learned societies {e.g. that 
of the Platonic philosophy founded at Florence, by Cosmo 
di Medici) ; new schools and libraries (the Vatican, &c), 
were established in different parts of Europe : (3) the 
invention of printing, byJohnGansfleisch, of Sul- 
geloch (Sorgenloch), commonly called Gutenberg of 
Mainz, who had already tried many experiments, during a 
sojourn of twenty [?] years at Strasburg, and on his return 
(1445) to his native town, brought his plans to perfection, 
with the assistance of Peter Schoft'er, and a rich goldsmith 
named John Fust (1450). The first printed book was Gu- d 
tenberg's Latin Bible (finished in 1456). In the scholastic 
Aristotelic philosophy (which was not superseded by the 
new Platonic philosophy until the end of the mediaeval 
period), the distinction continued to exist between the 
Realists (who maintained that general ideas were things), 
and the Nominalists (who contended that they were only 



156 THE MIDDLE AGES. [313. §73. 

(312) words). Both these schools were opposed to the Mystics. 

a The use of the vernacular language in historical writing 
became more common. Geographical science was pro- 
moted by the travels of missionaries, ambassadors, and 
merchants, and the discoveries of the Portuguese ; the 
study of mathematics and medicine by translations of 
the best Greek treatises on those subjects. 
313 4. Art. (a) Poetry nourished most in Italy, where the 

b Florentine Dante Alighieri (j- 1321) won for himself the 
title of " Father of Italian poetry," by the publication of 
his " Divina Commedia" (Wanderings in Heaven, Hell, 
and Purgatory). The sonnets of Francesco Petrarca (Pe- 
trarch), on Laura of Sade (fl374), and the Decamerone 
of Giovanni Boccaccio (-[1375), are also works of no 
ordinary merit. The Tuscan dialect, in which Boccaccio 
wrote, became thenceforward the language of Italian lite- 
rature. In Germany, as in France, the drama owed its 
development to. the mysteries and Shrovetide mummeries 

c (as they were called) of the Romish Church. The ser- 
mons of John Tauler are the earliest attempt at German 
prose composition. The father of English poetry was 
Geoffrey Chaucer (fl400). (b) Architecture. In addi- 
tion to the Gothic, which was occupied partly in com- 
pleting the works commenced in the preceding century, 
and partly in constructing new edifices (the church of 
St. Mary, at Nurnburg ; the cathedrals of Ulm, Antwerp, 
and Milan), there arose in Italy a new school, which pro- 
fessed to copy the monuments of classical antiquity. The 
best architects in this style were at Pisa and Florence. 

D (c) Painting was brought to great perfection (a) in Italy 
by the Tuscan or Florentine school (which numbered 
among its professors Leonardo da Vinci (flSlQ), the 
inventor of perspective), as well as by the Roman and 
other schools : (b) in Germany, by the earlier Cologne 
(Meister Wilhelm) and Flemish schools (the two brothers 
van Eyck). (d) Sculpture in clay, bronze, and marble (by 
Donato of Florence and others) emulated the perfection of 
ancient art. (e) Copperplate printing was invented in Ger- 
many in the fifteenth century. (/) Music was improved by 
the invention of singing in parts, the addition of pedals to 
the organ, and various important alterations in the con- 
struction of other instruments. 



313. §73.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 157 

5. Trade, Navigation, and Manufactures, (a) In (313) 
the south, the maritime trade was almost exclusively in the A 
hands of the Italians. The command of the Mediterranean 
was at first divided between Venice and Genoa, the former 
possessing the East Indian, Syrian, and African trade, the 
latter the trade to the Black Sea, Byzantium, and the 
Levant ; both republics having also settlements in the 
islands, and even in Greece and the Tauric Cherso- 
nesus. But the long war (see § 61), which ended in the 
triumph of Venice over her rival, placed at her disposal 
the trade to the Levant and the Black Sea, in addition to 
her former commercial advantages. (Z>) All the coasts of B 
western and northern Europe belonged to the German 
Hansa. This union of nearly eighty Netherlandish, 
North-German, and Prussian cities, for the protection of 
their commerce from piracy and violence, had gradually 
been formed (since the thirteenth century) out of several 
smaller Hansas or associations, and was at first divided 
into three branches: (1) the Wendish-Saxon ; (2) the 
Westphalian-Prussian ; and (3) the Gothlandish towns ; 
i. e. the Germans in Gothland, Livonia, and Sweden ; and 
at a later period into four, viz. the Westphalian, of which 
Cologne was the centre ; the Prussian, which had Dantzig ; 
the Wendish, Liibec ; and the Saxon, Brunswick, for 
their respective commercial capitals. The Hansa had c 
depots at Bruges, Novgorod, in all the seaports of the 
Baltic and German Ocean, and even in Spain. It main- 
tained also a considerable navy, held diets, and carried on 
wars. After a long struggle with Cologne, Liibec was 
recognized as the chief city of the Union. The overland 
trade between the east and west, as well as between the 
north of Europe and Italy (from Dantzic and Kiev to 
Venice), was in the hands of the Viennese, Ratisboners, 
Nurnburgers, and Augsburgers ; but a considerable inter- 
change of commodities between the north (Prussian and 
Slavish provinces), and South (Constantinople and Venice), 
was effected through the agency of Breslau merchants. 
Towards the end of the mediaeval period, the fairs held D 
at Frankfort-on-the-Maine were in general repute. The 
principal emporium of the French overland trade was at 
first Troyes, and at a later period (1445) Lyons. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 



First Period. — From, the fall of the western empire to the accession 
of the Carlovingians and Abbasides, 476 — 750. 

A. D. 

476 — 493. The Italian empire of Odoacer. 

486. End of the Roman supremacy in Gaul. Syagrius defeated 

by Clovis near Soissons. 
493 — 555. Empire of the Ostrogoths in Italy. 
496. Battle of Ziilpich. 

507. Southern France wrested from the Visigoths by Clovis. 
527 — 565. Justinian I. Legislation. Nika. Architectural works. 
531 — 712. Elective Visigothic monarchy in Spain. 

533. Kingdoms of Thuringia and Burgundy united to Spain. 

534. Empire of the Vandals overthrown by Belisarius. 

535 — 555. War between the Ostrogoths (under Totilas and Tejas) 

and the Byzantines (under Belisarius and Narses). Rome 

taken five times. 
555 — 568. The whole of Italy subject to the Byzantine government. 
558 — 561. The Frankish monarchy re-united under Chlotar I. 
568 — 774. Kingdom of the Lombards in Upper and Central Italy, 

founded by Alboin. 
585. Union of the empire of the Suevi with that of the Visigoths. 
613. The Frankish monarchy re-united under Chlotar II. 
622. Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. 
632. Death of Mohammed. 
632 — 661. Four caliphs of the race of Kureish, viz. Abu Bekr, 

Omar, Othman, and Ali. Conquest of Syria, Palestine, 

Phoenicia, Egypt, the northern coast of Africa, Cyprus, and 

Rhodes. 
661 — 750. The thirteen Ommaijad caliphs. Great extension of the 

Arabian empire. 
687. Pepin of Heristal sole Major-Domus of the Frankish empire 

(after his victory at Testri). 

711. Victory of Tarik over the Visigoths at Xeres de la Frontera. 

712. The whole of Spain, except Asturia, in possession of the 

Arabians. 
716 — 754. Bonifacius in Germany. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 159 

A. D. 

732. Charles Martel defeats the Arabians between Tours and 

Poitiers. 
750. Assassination of the Ommaijades. 

Second Period. — From the accession of the Carlovingians and Ab- 
basides to the Crusades, about the year 1100. 

750—1258. The Abbaside caliphs. 

752—911 (987). The Carlovingians 

752 — 758. Pepin the Short. Two expeditions into Italy for the pro- 
tection of the pope against the Lombard King Aistulf. 

756 — 1028. Cordova an independent caliphate. 

768 — 814. Charlemagne. 

771. Charlemagne becomes sole ruler by the death of his brother 
Carloman. 

772—804. War with the Saxons. 

773 — 774. Conquest of the Lombardic kingdom. 

778. War in Spain. Defeat of the Mohammedan governors on 
this side the Ebro. Disastrous retreat. 

787 — 788. Defeat and removal of Duke Tassilo of Bavaria. 

791 — 799. War with the Avares. Extension of the empire to the 
banks of the Theiss. Subjugation of the Slavish tribes on 
the eastern frontier of the empire. 

800. Charlemagne receives the imperial crown. 

814 — 840. Lewis the Pious. Partition of the empire among his 
three sons. Birth of Charles the Bald, and consequent re- 
division of the empire. The elder sons make war on their 
father. Plans for a further division. 

827 — 1016. Monarchy of the West-Saxon kings in England. 

840—1370. The Piasts in Poland. 

840 — 843. Lewis the German and Charles the Bald make war on 
their brother Lothar. 

843. Partition of the Frankish empire by the convention of 
, Verdun. 

864—1598. The Rurik dynasty in Russia. 

867 — 1056. Macedonian emperors at Constantinople. 

871—901. Alfred the Great. 

885 — 887. The Frankish monarchy re-united under Charles the 
Fat, by the exclusion of Charles the Simple. 

887. Charles the Fat deposed. Final division of the Frankish 
empire into five portions. 

887 — 987. The last Carlovingians in France. 

887. Arnulf of Carinthia. Defeat of the Normans near Louvain. 
Arnulf forms an alliance with the Magyars against Zwenti- 
bald, king of the Moravians. 

888 — 962. Italy under native sovereigns. 

889—1301. The Arpads in Hungary. 

About 900. Four Scandinavian kingdoms. 

900 — 911. Lewis the Child. Germany invaded by the Hungari- 
ans. 

911 — 918. Conrad of Franconia. His authority disputed by the 
nobles. Lorraine annexed to France. Irruptions of the 
Hungarians. 



160 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



919—1024. Saxon Emperors. 

919—936. Henry I. The empire re-united. Lorraine restored to 
Germany. Nine years' truce with the Hungarians. Mili- 
tary improvements. Subjugation of Bohemia and the 
Wendish tribes as far as the Oder. Defeat of the Hun- 
garians (at Merseburg). The northern frontier of the 
empire extended to the (so-called) Danawirk. 

936 — 973. Otho (I.) the Great. Insurrection of the dukes. Ex- 
pedition to Jutland. 

951. First Italian campaign. Berengar a vassal of the German 
crown. 

955. Final defeat of the Hungarians on the banks of the Lech. 
The Sclavonians subdued. 

962. Second Italian campaign. Otho crowned at Rome. Berengar 
taken prisoner. 

966 — 972. Third Italian campaign. War with the Greeks in Lower 
Italy. 

973 — 983. Otho II. War with Lothar of France for the possession 
of Lorraine. Otho defeated in Lower Italy. His death. 

983—1002. Otho III. Rebellion of Henry, duke of Bavaria. 
Otho crowned at Rome. 

987—1328. The Capets in France. 

1002 — 1024. Henry II. Wars with the Italians, Poles, and Bo- 
hemians. 

1002. Massacre of all the Danes in England. 

1016 — 1042. The Danes conquer all England. Canute. 

1024 — 1125. Franconian Emperors. 

1024 — 1039. Conrad II. Burgundy annexed to the German crown. 
The March of Schleswig ceded to Canute. A law passed 
rendering the smaller fiefs hereditary. 

1039 — 1056. Henry III. Greatest extension of the empire. The 
"Treuga Dei," or God's truce. 

1042 — 1066. Restoration of the Anglo-Saxon kings in England. 

1056 — 1106. Henry IV. Regency of the Empress Agnes. Influ- 
ence of the Archbishops of Cologne and Bremen. 

1057 — 1185. The Byzantine empire under the Comneni and Dukas. 

1066 — 1154. Norman kings in England. 

1073 — 1075. The Saxons renounce their allegiance. 

1073 — 1085. Disputes between Henry and Pope Gregory VII. re- 
specting the right of investiture. 

1077. Henry visits the pope at Canossa. 

1087. The Arabian empire in Spain united to Morocco. 

1094. The county of Portugal, at first a Castilian fief, afterwards 
independent. 



Third Period. 

1096—1273. Age of the Crusades. 

1096 — 1100. The First Crusade. Peter of Amiens. Councils of 

Piacenza and Clermont. Storming of Nicsea and Antiochia. 

Edessa and Antiochia Christian principalities. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 161 

A. D. 

1099. The Crusaders take Jerusalem. Godfrey de Bouillon 

elected king. Battle of Antioch. 
1099 — 1187. Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

1100. Death of Godfrey de Bouillon. 
1106—1125. Henry V. 

1122. The dispute respecting investiture terminated by the Con- 
cordat of Worms. 

1125—1137. Lothar the Saxon. Bavaria and Saxony united 
under the house of Guelph. Struggles with the Hohen- 
staufen. 

1130—1194. The sovereignty of the Two Sicilies in the hands of 
the Normans. 

1138 — 1254. The Hohenstaufen. 

1138 — 1152. Conrad III. Henry the Proud deprived of both his 
dukedoms. Siege of Weinsberg. 

1147—1149. The Second Crusade. Edessa taken by the Turks. 
Unsuccessful campaign of Conrad III. and Louis "VII. in 
Palestine. 

1152 — 1190. Frederick (I.) Barbarossa. His first Italian cam- 
paign. Destruction of three of the Lombard cities. Ex- 
ecution of Arnold of Brescia. Bavaria restored to Henry 
the Lion. 

1154 — 1399. England under the house of Plantagenet. 

1158 — 1162. Frederick's second Italian campaign. The Milanese 
humbled. Diet on the Roncalian plain. Milan destroyed. 

1166 — 1168. Frederick again visits Italy for the purpose of placing 
Paschal III. on "the papal throne. Returns without his 
army. Alexandria built. 

1174—1178. Fifth Italian campaign. Defection of Henry the Lion. 

1176. Frederick defeated at Legnano. 

1183. Peace concluded at Constance between Frederick and the 
Lombards. Henry the Lion placed under the ban of the 
empire, and his estates divided. 

1186. Sixth Italian campaign. Frederick's son Henry marries Con- 

stance, heiress of Apulia and Sicily. 
1185 — 1204. The Byzantine empire under the house of Angelus. 

1187. Defeat of the Christians at Hittin. Jerusalem re-taken by 

the Turks. 
1189 — 1193. Third Crusade. Death of Frederick Barbarossa. 

The Teutonic order instituted in the camp before Acre. 

Misunderstanding between Philip II. and Richard Coeur 

de Lion. Truce with Saladin. The kingdom of Cyprus. 

Captivity of Richard. 
1190 — 1197. Henry VI. His cruelties in Apulia and Sicily. 
1194 — 1266. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies under the Hohenstaufen. 
1198 — 1208. Philip of Swabia and Otho IV. Ten years' dispute 

terminated by the assassination of Philip, by Otho of 

Wittelsbach. 
1203 — 1204. The Fourth (so-called) Crusade. The Crusaders visit 

Constantinople for the purpose of replacing the Emperor 

Isaac on the throne. They quarrel with the emperor. 

Constantinople taken, 



162 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1204 — 1261. The Latin Empire. Division of the empire. Sove- 
reignties of Nicsea and Trebizond. 

1206. Temudschin becomes Tschingis-Khan. Religious wars in 
the south of France. The Cathari and Waldenses. 

1208 — 1215. Otho IV. sole emperor. He quarrels with the pope. 

1212 The Childrens' Crusade. 

1215. Magna Charta Libertatum in England. 

1215 — 1250. Frederick II. His disputes with the pope respecting 
the union of the German and Sicilian crowns, and the 
crusade. 

1224. Victory of the Mongols on the Kalka. 

1228. Crusade of Frederick II. Treaty with Sultan Camel. 
Jerusalem restored to the Christians. 

1230 — 1283. War between the Teutonic order and the Prussians. 

1237. Frederick defeats the Lombards at Cortenuova. Second 
irruption of the Mongols. Eussia subject to them for more 
than 200 years. 

1241. Victory of the Mongols at Wahlstatt. They invade Hungary. 
Henry of Thuringia elected emperor in opposition to Frede- 
rick. He dies at the end of a year. Election of William 
of Holland. 

1248. The Sixth Crusade. Louis IX. in Egypt. 

1250—1256. Conrad IV. (t 1254) and William of Holland rival 
emperors. 

1256 — 1273. The interregnum in Germany. Richard of Cornwall 
and Alfonso of Castille. 

1258. End of the Arabian caliphate in Bagdad. 

1266. Charles of Anjou defeats Manfred near Benevento. Con- 
quers Italy and Sicily. 

1268. Conradin defeated near Scurcola, and executed at Naples. 

1270. The Seventh Crusade. Lewis IX. dies before Tunis. 



Fourth Period. 

1273 — 1492. From the end of the Crusades to the Discovery 
of America. 

1273 — 1291. Rudolf of Habsburg. War with Ottocar of Bohe- 
mia. The house of Habsburg acquires Austria, Styria, 
and Carinthia. 

1282. Sicilian vespers. Expulsion of the French from Sicily. 

1291. The Christians lose Acre, the last of their possessions in 
Palestine. 

1292 — 1298. Adolphus of Nassau. War with the sons of Albert 
the Degenerate (of Thuringia). Adolphus slain in the 
battle of Worms. 

1298 — 1308. Albert I. of Austria. 

1305. The papal see transferred to Avignon. 

1307. The Swiss confederation. 

1308. Albert assassinated by his nephew. 

1308 — 1313. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. Bohemia re-annexed 
to the German crown. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 163 

A. D. 

1309. Head-quarters of the Teutonic order transferred to Marien- 
burg. 

1312. Extermination of the Knights Templars in France. 

1313 — 1347. } Lewis IV. the Bavarian, with Frederick op 
1330. $ Austria. 

1315. Leopold of Austria defeated by the Swiss at Morgarten. 

1322. Battle of Miihldorf. Frederick taken prisoner. Lewis and 
Frederick reign conjointly. Lewis quarrels with Pope 
John XXII. 

1328 — 1498. Elder line op the house op Valois in France. 

1338. The electoral diet at Rhense declares the emperor indepen- 
dent of the pope. 

1339 — 1453. War between England and France in consequence of 
the claims of the King of England to the French throne. 
The English victorious at Sluys, Crecy, Maupertuis, and 
Agincourt. Charles of Bohemia elected king in opposition 
to Louis ; and (after the death of Louis) Count Giinther 
of Schwarzburg in opposition to Charles. 

1347 — 1437. German kings op the house op Bohemia. — Luxem- 
burg. 

1347—1378. Charles IV. 

1348. First German university founded at Prague. 

1356. The Golden Bull. 

1378 — 1400. Wenceslaus. Repeated attempts to establish a uni- 
versal peace throughout Germany. 

1397. The union of Calmar. 

1399 — 1461. The house of Lancaster in England. 

1400 — 1410. Rupert of the Palatinate. — Unsuccessful expedi- 
tion against Wenceslaus. 

1414 — 1418. Council op Constance. Termination of the papal 
schism. Four concordats instead of a real reform in the 
Church. Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. 

1417. The March of Brandenburg granted as a fief to the Bur- 
grave. Frederick of Niirnberg, of the house of Hohenzol- 
lern. 

1419—1436. The Hussite war. John Ziska (f 1424). Five un- 
successful campaigns of the imperial army against the 
insurgents in Bohemia. The war terminated by a conven- 
tion between the insurgents and the council of Basle. 

1429 — 1431. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. 

1438 — 1806. Emperors op the house op Austria. 

1438 — 1439. Albert II. Unfortunate expedition against the Turks. 

1440—1493. Frederick II. 

1453. Constantinople taken by the Turks. 

1459 — 1485. War of the red and white roses in England. 

1461 — 1485. England under the house of York. 

1466. West-Prussia incorporated with Poland. East-Prussia a 
Polish fief. 

1476. Charles the Bold of Burgundy defeated at Murten and 

Granson. 

1477. Charles of Burgundy slain at Nancy. Austria acquires the 

Netherlands and Burgundy by the marriage of Maximilian 

with Mary of Burgundy. 
1486. Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 
1492. Columbus discovers America. 



QUESTIONS. 



§ 1. Geography of Germany in the First Century after Chrisil 

[1] In what part of Germany were the principal Roman settle! 

a ments at the commencement of the first century 1 By whal 
works were these settlements protected'? To whom did tin] 
territory southward and westward of this frontier belong 1 In] 

b to how many provinces was it divided, and what were thei 

names 1 By what people was the rest of Germany inhabited 

[2] By what Roman writers is the soil of Germany described 

"What account do they give of it 1 What forest is particularly 

mentioned, and what was its extent "? How was the climat< 

a affected by these peculiarities of the soil 1 What animal 
were produced in Germany'? Describe the vegetable an( 
mineral productions of the soil. 
[3] Into how many nations were the Germans divided at thij 

b period'?- Name the first of these divisions, and the various 

tribes of which it was composed, with their respective posi 

tions. 

[4] Name the second division with its tribes. 

[5] Name the third division. To what nations is this genera 

c term applied by Tacitus 1 How many of these tribes are es> 
pecially mentioned by the historian 1 "Why are they thu: 
particularized'? Name and describe each of them. Of hov 
many smaller tribes was the second of these composed 1 Wha 

d deity did they worship 1 Name the other tribes belongin| 
to the same stock but not especially mentioned by the histo 
rian. What circumstances indicate the common descent ol 
all these tribes from a distinct and unmixed race 1 

§ 2. Religion, Manners, and Customs in the First Century oj 
the Christian JEra. 

[6] Under what names was the Supreme Being worshipped b3 

a the Germans ] Where were sacrifices offered to these deities 

and from what occurrences were auguries derived 1 Wha 

was their idea of a future state 1 Describe the peculiaritiei 

of a German chief's funeral. 

[7] What distinction existed between freemen and serfs? A]j 
b what seasons did their great national councils assemble, anc 
for what purposes 1 How were the assent and disapprobatioi 
of the assembly expressed 1 To what privileges were then 
young men admitted at these assemblies 1 From what classes 
were their princes and dukes chosen 1 What was the extern 
of their authority 1 



3 14.] QUESTIONS. 165 

"8] Describe their arms offensive and defensive. In what flg- 
' c ure was their order of battle formed and how was it protected 1 
What religions ceremony was performed before and during 
the battle 1 To whom were they frequently indebted for vic- 
tory after the failure of their first attack 1 
9] Describe the habitations of the ancient Germans. Explain 
d the terms mark, zent, and gau. Describe the ordinary sum- 
a mer and winter dress of men and women. What were the 
two chief employments of their lives 1 By whom was the soil 
cultivated 1 How did they pass most of their leisure time 1 
What subjects were frequently discussed at their feasts 1 
B What were the distinguishing virtues of the Germans 1 In 
what manner was atonement made for violations of the 
law? 

§ 3. History of the Germans to the Period of the Migrations. 

10] To whom were the shores of the Baltic probably known 
from the remotest antiquity 1 With what events do our first 
distinct accounts of the Germans commence'? Mention some 

c instances. Who were the most formidable of these invaders, 
and what Eoman post did they attack 1 Describe the next 
migration. Who was their leader ] By whom and at what 

D place was he defeated 1 What nations were subdued by Cae- 
sar'? By whom was the subjugation of Gaul completed 1 

A What decisive victory did he gain 1 What emperor formed 
a body-guard of Germans 1 What nations were subdued, by 
his step-sons'? What measures were adopted by Drusus for 

B the subjugation of the Low German tribes 1 How far did he 
advance % Name the two first unions of German tribes. 

11] By whom was the war in Germany continued after the 
death of Drusus % What empire did he threaten, and of what 
tribes was it composed 1 By whom was this empire founded 1 

, c What occurrence put an end to the war 1 What was the po- 
sition of the Romans in Germany at this period 1 What cir- 
cumstances occasioned a confederation of the Low German 
tribes'? Who was the Roman governor, and what was his 

D conduct"? By whom was he resisted 1 Where were the Ro- 
mans attacked, and what was the result of the battle 1 What 

i measures were adopted by Augustus in consequence of this 

A disaster 1 By whom was the slaughter of the Roman legions 

i avenged 1 In what battle 1 What prevented the re-establish- 

i ment of Roman supremacy in Germany 1 

12] What German tribes renounced their allegiance to Marbod 

s B at this period 1 By whom were their places supplied 1 What 
was the result of these secessions % What became of Marbod 1 
What was the fate of Herman 1 [Arminius.] 

'13] After the dissolution of these confederacies, what was the 
c result of the Roman policy in Germany 1 Were not some 
attempts made to throw off the Roman yoke 7 ? With what 
success ? 

[14] On what occasion do we first hear of the Vandals and 
D Alans 1 By whom were several campaigns undertaken against 



166 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [15 — 23.| 

a these barbarians, and where did he diel By whom and or 

what conditions was peace granted to several German tribes ' 

[15] Of what tribes was the confederacy in "Western Germany 

b composed 1 
[16] How many confederacies existed in Eastern Germany' 

c To what circumstances may the origin of these confederacies 
be traced 1 In what countries did the Goths first appear, and 
where did they carry on their warfare 1 Who re-establishe^ 

d the frontier wall between the Rhine and Danube 1 "What 
transplantation of German tribes took place at the same time | 
Trace the progress of the Alemanni and Franks. How were 

a these encroachments met by the Romans 1 By what general 
and where were the Alemanni defeated"? By whom were 
they finally expelled from Gaul 1 

§ 4. Destruction of the Gothic empire by the Huns. 

[17] "What portions of Europe were occupied by the Ostrogoths 
d and Visigoths in the fourth century ? By whom were they 

governed 1 
[18] What German tribe first embraced Christianity'? "Was 
c their belief orthodox or heretical 1 At what council was a 
Gothic bishop present 1 Who was his successor and what 
book did he translate into the Gothic language 1 
[19] "What quarter of the globe did the Huns originally inhabit'? 
. To what empire had they rendered themselves formidable 1 
D "What barrier was erected against their encroachments 1 Into 
how many kingdoms was the Hunnish empire divided at a 
later period 1 By whom was their Northern kingdom over- 
thrown 1 By what tribe were they encountered between the 
Volga and the Don 1 "What was the result of the contest be- 
tween the Huns and Goths 1 
[19] Where were the Visigoths permitted to settle 1 "What in- 
a duced them to revolt 1 What auxiliaries did they call in and 
what was the result of their expedition into Thrace ? What 
became of Valensl By whom was he succeeded'? "What 
B terms did the new emperor make with the Goths 1 "Who 
was chosen king of the Visigoths, and for what reason 1 
"What country did they invade 1 By whom were they com- 
pelled to retire 1 "What command was conferred on Alaric 1 

§ 5. General immigration of the Barbarians into the Countries 
of the West. 

[20] What country was next invaded by Alaric, and with what 
c success % 
[21] What German chief led his forces into Italy 1 What was 

their fate 1 

[22] In what direction did the grand movement take place from 

d the interior of Germany ] What countries were respectively 

occupied by the Burgundians, Alani. Vandals, and Suevil 

a "What portion of the Spanish Peninsula remained in the hands 

of the Romans 1 
[23] How often was Rome besieged by Alaric 1 "What was the 



24 29.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 167 

result of the last attack 1 How were the inhabitants pun- 
B ishecn Where did Alaric die, and where was he buried'? 
By whom was he succeeded 1 What countries did he invade % 
Who was the next Gothic sovereign ? What nations did he 
conquer 1 Where did he fix the seat of government 1 
[24] What new empire was established by the Vandals'? By 
c whom were they led 1 What was the capital of the Vandalic 
empire ? What islands did it comprehend 1 
[25] What was the condition of the Britons at this time 1 To 
d whom did they apply in vain for protection ! What German 
tribes accepted their invitations 1 By whom were they com- 
manded'? What kingdoms did they establish in Britain'? 
What became of the original inhabitants 1 

§ 6. Dissolution of the Hunnish empire. 

[26] What became of the Huns after the conquest of the Ostro- 
a goths "? Under whose command did they again become for- 
b midable 1 With whom did he share the throne 1 By whom 
was Attila persuaded to invade the Eastern empire 1 What 
emperor was defeated by him 1 Under what circumstances 
was the siege of Constantinople raised 1 Where and by what 
c generals was Attila defeated "? By what peculiarity was this 
battle distinguished 1 For what reason, and with what suc- 
cess, did Attila invade Italy 1 What became of the inhabit- 
D ants of the Lombard cities 1 At whose instance was peace 
granted to the Romans 1 What happened to the Hunnish 
empire after the death of Attila 1 What was its extent in his 
lifetime 1 By what nations were new kingdoms formed 1 

fy 7. Dissolution of the Western Roman empire. 

[27] By what circumstances was the progress of the Germanic 
a tribes favored 1 By whom was the capital of the Western 
empire plundered"? Over what countries did the Visigoths 
"extend their empire'? What tribes spread over Gaul"? By 
whom were the attempts of the Romans to reconquer Africa 
B rendered abortive ? Who was Odoacer 1 What sovereign did 
-he depose, and by whom was he proclaimed King of Italy 1 
By whom was the last Roman governor compelled to evacuate 
Gaul 1 

§ 8. Empires in Italy. 

[28] By whom was the Italian empire established in 476 1 Who 

a was Theodoric, and what plan did he propose to the emperor 

Zeno 1 What religion did he profess 1 What victories did 

he gain, and what Italian city did he besiege and take 1 What 

B was the fate of Odoacer % By what surname is Theodoric 

generally distinguished 1 

[29] By whom was he recognized as king of Italy 1 Over what 

countries did he extend his empire ? Where did he establish 

the imperial residence'? By what name is he commonly 

c known in Germany 1 To what circumstances do you attribute 

a the prosperity of Italy during his reign? Among what 

princes did he succeed in maintaining peace 1 Which of the 



168 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [30 34. 

German sovereigns opposed his plans'? To whom was the 
Visigothic throne secured 1 "What circumstances occasioned 

B the death of Theodoric 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 In 
whose name did she govern 1 What was her fate % Under 
what pretence did Justinian revive the claims of the Eastern 
emperor to the throne of Italy 1 "What was the result of this 
demand'? What was the name of the Byzantine general, and 
what advantages were gained by him % How were these ad- 

c vantages lost 1 Under what leader were the Goths victorious 1 
What German tribes fought as mercenaries against their 
countrymen, and under what leader 1 What was the fate of 
Totila 1 ? What became of one portion of the Goths'? By 

D whom were the remainder overthrown 1 What form of gov- 
ernment was now established in Italy 1 
[30] By whom were the Romans compelled to relinquish their 
sovereignty over the whole of Italy 1 How long had they 

a exercised this authority 1 To what territories were they now 

restricted 1 
[31] What nation was subdued by the Langobardi on their return 
from Italy 1 By whom were they commanded'? By what 
nation were they assisted 1 What portion of Italy did they 
wrest from the Byzantines 1 What name was given to this 

B portion 1 What city was made the capital of this new king- 
dom 1 What was the fate of Alboin 1 By whom was he suc- 
ceeded 1 What was the extent of the Lombard empire during 
his reign 1 What was his fate, and what form of government 

c was established after his death 1 Who was chosen king when 
the restoration of monarchy was found necessary 1 By whom 
were many of the Lombards converted to the orthodox faith 1 

D Within what limits was the exarchate confined by succeeding 
Lombard kings 1 By whom were the Lombards compelled 
to cede a portion of the coast of the Adriatic to the pope 1 

a What was the effect of this concession 1 What circumstance 
occasioned the incorporation of the Langobardic empire into 
that of the Franks'? 

§ 9. Empire of the Vandals in Africa. 
[32] What was the extent of the empire in Africa"? What 

islands in the Mediterranean did it also comprehend % 
[33] By whom was Geiseric [Genseric] invited into Italy? What 
b was the result of this invasion 1 What became of Eudoxia % 
What measures were adopted for clearing the Mediterranean 
c of Vandal pirates 1 What was the result 1 By what circum- 
stances was the decline of the Vandal empire accelerated'? 
In what manner did Justinian avail himself of this position 
d of affairs 1 What sovereign occupied the Vandal throne at 
this time 1 What was the issue of the attack on Carthage, 
a and by what important consequences was it followed 1 What 
became of Gelimer and his Vandal soldiers 1 

§ 10. Empire of the Suevi in Spain. 
[34] By what nation had Boetica been occupied since the de- 
parture of the Vandals 1 Who was their first Christian sove- 



35 40.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 169 

reign'? By whom, and for what reason, was he attacked? 

B What was his fate ? By whom was a new Suevic kingdom 

established, and into what empire was it finally incorporated ? 

§11. Empire of the Visigoths. 

[35] What was the extent of the Visigothic empire in Gaul 1 
c What portion remained in their hands after the battle of 
d Vougle ] Describe their possessions in Spain at different pe- 
* riods. What African territory belonged to them 1 
[36] Who was the founder of the Visigothic empire, and by 
a whom was he succeeded 1 What conquests were achieved by 
this sovereign, and what was his fate 1 What nations were 
subdued by Theodoric II. and Euric 1 Who succeeded Euric 
on the throne"? With whom did the Visigothic Catholics 
form an alliance 1 Under what pretence did he attack Alaric 
11."? Where was the battle fought, and with what result 1 
What was the fate of Alaric 1 What portion of their posses- 
B sions in Gaul were the Visigoths allowed to retain 1 In whose 
reign, and for how long a period, were the Visigothic and Os- 
trogothic empires united '? To what place was the imperial 
residence transferred after the death of Amalric 1 By whom, 
and under what circumstances, was he slain 1 
[37] By what people was the Visigothic empire still further cir- 
c cumscribed ? By whose invitation did they invade the coun- 
try % What tribes were reduced to submission by Leuwigild 1 
[38] To what object was the attention of the Visigotliic kings 
d directed after the expulsion of the Greeks from Spain 1 What 
foreign conquest was achieved during this period ? By whom, 
and under what circumstances, were the Arabians invited 
over from Africa 1 By whom was their army commanded 1 
a Who was king of the Goths at this time, and where did he 
encounter the invaders 1 How long did the battle last, and 
* what was the result 1 By whom were the Moorish generals 
recalled? What division of the Pyrenasan peninsula took 
place after their departure 1 By whom was Arabian Spain 
, governed, and until what period 1 

§ 12. Empire of the Burgundians in Gaul. 

[39] What name was probably given by Tacitus to the Burgun- 
b dians 1 In what part of Europe did they first appear in the 

first century 1 What disaster compelled them to retire west- 
c wards 1 Where did they next settle 1 What was their form 

of government 1 For what reasons Avere their kings set aside 1 

By whom, and under what circumstances, was their kingdom 
D conquered and divided 1 What privileges were the Burgun- 

dians permitted to retain 1 

§ 13. Empire of the Franks under the Merovingians. 

[40] How did the Franks obtain settlements in Gaul 1 Into how 
a many principal branches were they divided ? By what mon- 
b arch was the Roman supremacy in Gaul destroyed % What 



170 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [41 45. 

people did he subdue 1 By whom was he assisted 1 "Why 
did he embrace the Catholic religion 1 By whom was he 

c crowned ] What nations were reduced by him to the condi- 
tion of tributaries ] Did they ever recover their independ- 
ence ] Under what pretence did he attack the Visigoths ] 
Where was the battle fought, and what was the result ] To 

d what city did he now transfer his residence ] By whom were 
the Frankish clans united into one kingdom] By what 
means Avas this arrangement facilitated] Into how many 
portions was the Frankish empire divided after the death' of 
Clovis ] By whom were these new kingdoms governed, and 
where did they respectively fix their residences 1 What con- 
quest was achieved by the king of Metz ] With whom did 

a he share the Burgundian territory % By what accession of 
territory was the empire of the Franks further augmented ] 
What privilege were the Bavarians permitted to retain 1 
[41] Under what sovereign was the Frankish empire reunited"? 
Into how many portions was it divided after his death ] How 
long did this arrangement continue 1 What was the next di- 

b vision] Describe these kingdoms, and give the names of 

c their respective capitals. 
[42] What city continued to be the common capital of the three 

kingdoms ] 
[43] What was the character of Clothaire's successors] By 
whose misconduct were these calamities chiefly occasioned ] 

d Under what sovereign was the empire a second time united ] 
What change took place in the administration of the Frank- 
ish empire during the reign of Clothaire II. ] 
[44] How many of these officers were there, and what district 

a was assigned to each ] What were their duties ] By whom 
was the Frankish monarchy united for the third time ] Who 
became major domus of the whole empire ] What nation 
soon separated itself from the empire 1 What was the char- 
acter of the Frankish kings, and what authority was exer- 
cised by the majores domus during this period ] On whom 
was the title of duke and prince of the Franks conferred] 

b After what victory ] By whom was the successor to the office 
of major domus disputed after his death ] In whose favor 
was the dispute finally decided] What conquests were 

c achieved by him ] By whom was the Merovingian dynasty 
supplanted] How had he conciliated the clergy] 

(j 14. Religion, Manners, and Customs of the West, particularly 
of the Frankish empire. 
[45] By what German tribes were Arianism and Catholicism re- 

d spectively adopted ] What tribes were afterwards persuaded 

a to renounce Arianism ] What was the religion of the Ger- 
mans at the commencement of this period ] Into what had 
the pure adoration of nature which they originally professed 

b degenerated ] Prove this by an instance. What nations re- 
mained in a state of heathenism after the conversion of Clo- 
vis] At what period did the Burgundians embrace the 

c Catholic religion ] By whom was the Gospel most effectually 



46 51.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 171 

propagated in Germany 1 By what title was lie generally 
known 1 What offices did he fill in the Church 1 What was 
his fate % 
[46] What was the origin of the Christian monastic life 1 Who 

d was the chief of the Egyptian monks 1 By whom were they 

a assembled within the walls of one building'? What names 
were given to this house 1 What was the title of their presi- 
dent 1 By whom was a new form given to this institution in 

b the West"? For what convent was his "rule" originally 
framed 1 What were its provisions 1 What was the general 
character of these monks between the sixth and ninth centu- 
ries, and what results were produced 1 
[47] What circumstances rendered the excommunication of the 

c Church and the ban of the empire inseparable 1 Mention 
some instances in which the privileges of the Church were 
violated by the kings. In what causes did the bishops exer- 
cise a peculiar jurisdiction 1 What was the heaviest ecclesi- 
astical punishment 1 
[48] Of how many sorts were the warlike enterprises of the an- 

d cient German states 1 Who was the leader in each of these 

a instances 1 What proportion of the land belonging to the 

b vanquished was generally claimed by the conquerors 1 In 
what manner was the German throne at once hereditary and 
elective'? How was the successful candidate inaugurated'? 

c What offices in the royal household were held by the nobles 
of the kingdom 1 What addition was made to this order after 
the introduction of Christianity 1 In what did the power of 
the kings consist 1 What circumstances indicate their de- 

d pendence on the Roman emperors 1 In what other particu- 
lars was the influence of Rome perceptible'? 
[49] What division was made of the territory obtained by con- 

a quest 1 What name was given to these allotments 1 What 
privilege was enjoyed by the possessors of them 1 What was 
the origin of vassalage 1 On what terms were the fiefs held 1 

b Who was the chief of these vassals, and what was his office 1 

o How did these fiefs become hereditary 1 Under what circum- 
stances were many of the allodes converted into feudal estates 1 
What revolution took place in their military system 1 Of whom 
was the army now composed 1 Describe the manner in which 
these parties respectively were called into active service. How 
often, and in what place, was the Frankish army reviewed % 
[50] Among what nations, and at what period, were written laws 

d first introduced '? In what language were all these codes drawn 

a up'? Was there not one exception'? Under what circum- 
stances were they probably compiled 1 What laws are found in 
the statute books of the eastern and western Goths and Bur- 

b gundians 1 What remarkable difference existed between the 
punishments inflicted on serfs and on freemen 1 How many 

c sorts of courts of justice had they 1 How many sorts of proof? 
By what circumstances was agricultural improvement in some 
measure retarded'? 
[5l] What obstacles also existed to the advancement of manu- 

a facturing and commercial industry ? To what causes do you 



172 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [52 57. 

attribute the little influence exercised by Christianity during 
this period! 

[52] In whose hands was scientific knowledge at this time 1 De- 
scribe their system of education. What do you understand 
by the terms Trivium and Quadrivium 1 Where were the 
b best educational establishments'! Mention some of their most 
distinguished scholars. In what language were all the works 
of this period written 1 

[53] Enumerate the most important of these works. What 
c specimens have we of the transition from the ancient to the 
modern style of architecture 1 

§ 15. Tlie Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) empire. 

[54] What were the limits of the Byzantine empire from a. d. 

d 395 to 531 1 What additions were made to the empire in 

a subsequent years 1 What losses did it sustain in the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth centuries'? What military arrangement 
was adopted during this period 1 
[55] What portion did Arcadius receive at the partition of the 

b empire by Theodosius 1 What was his character % Mention 
the names of some of his favorites. By what concessions 
were the Huns and Visigoths conciliated 1 By whom was 
Arcadius succeeded 1 Who was his guardian 1 What further 

c concessions were extorted from him by the Huns % Was not 
this loss counterbalanced by an accession of territory 1 By 
whom, and under what title, was the first digest of laws pub- 
lished ! What provinces were added to the empire by his 

d immediate successors 1 Name the first emperor crowned by 
the patriarch of Constantinople. Against what nation did he 
undertake an expedition, and with what success 1 Who was 
placed in his hands as security for the fulfilment of a treaty 
by the Ostrogoths ! Where was he educated 1 How did he 

a afterwards distinguish himself? Under whose auspices'? 
What military work was undertaken and completed by Ana- 
stasins 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 
[56] With whom did the new emperor share his throne 1 How 
long did they reign conjointly'? By whom was Justinian gov- 
erned '? What was his first and greatest work 1 Were any 

b other works on jurisprudence published during his reign'? 

c What was the Nika ■? How was it suppressed % What build- 
ings were restored after the suppression of the insurrection 1 

d By what measures did Justinian secure his northern and 
eastern frontiers 1 What great work did he next undertake 1 
By what general was the empire of the Vandals destroyed 1 
By whom was the Ostrogothic empire conquered and annexed 

a to the Byzantine empire 1 What Persian king renewed the 

b war 1 On what terms was peace concluded 1 By whom was 
the imperial exchequer left full, and how was it exhausted 
during this reign 1 
[57] Who succeeded Justinian on the throne 1 What important 

c military operations were commenced or renewed in his reign 1 
What heavy losses were sustained by the Emperor Heraclius ■? 

d By what tribes were the suburbs of his capital attacked 1 



58 63.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 173 

"What plan was proposed by the emperor in this extremity ] 
By whom was he persuaded to abandon it 1 What was the 
result of this change of policy 1 What losses did the empire 

a sustain soon afterwards 1 By the encroachments of what na- 
tions were the limits of the empire still further circumscribed ] 
By whom and how often was the city of Constantinople itself 

b besieged] How were the besiegers repulsed] What was 

c the intestine condition of the empire at this time ] To what 

d cause do you attribute the religious feuds of this period ] 

a Mention the most remarkable of these controversies. By 
what council was the worship of images condemned'? By 

b whom was their restoration at last effected'? What act pre- 
pared the way for the separation of the Greek and Roman 
Churches 1 What was the fate of Michael III, 1 
[58] From what emperor did the Roman empire receive a con- 

c stitution] By whom were the emperors crowned] What 
title did they assume ] How did they endeavor to conceal 
their real weakness ] Of what description of persons was the 
supreme deliberative council composed ] What change took 

d place in the mode of reckoning time ] By what sort of per- 
sons were the provinces governed ] 
[59] What languages were spoken by the court after its removal 
to Constantinople ] To what species of composition was po- 

a etry restricted ] In what cities do we find the most flourishing 

schools of philosophy ] Where was the most renowned school 

of jurisprudence] Where was medicine most successfully 

studied ] What was the character of the Byzantine historians ] 

[60] By what favorable circumstances was new life given to art ] 

b What were the distinguishing features of ancient Christian 
architecture] Where are these peculiarities seen in the 

c greatest perfection] To what descriptions of work were 
sculptors confined] In what age do we find the earliest 
specimens of Christian sculpture ] Into what western coun- 
tries did the Byzantine style of architecture find its way % 
[61] By what artists was a knowledge of painting generally dif- 

d fused ] By what obstacles were the operations of commerce 

a • impeded ] In what manner was trade carried on with the 
shores of the Mediterranean and with India ] What city was 
the principal emporium for western as well as eastern pro- 
duce ] To what circumstances do you ascribe the success of 
manufacturing industry ] 
[62] By whom, and from what country, were silk- worms brought 

b to Constantinople ] What was the moral condition of the 
people at this period ] 

% 16. Geography of Arabia. 

[63] What is the extent of the Arabian peninsula ] What is 
c the character of the soil ] What name was given by the an- 
cients to the south-western portion ] By what description of 
d persons is it inhabited ] Name their most celebrated cities. 
What was their religion before the time of Mohammed] By 
what name was their national sanctuary distinguished ] By 



174 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [64 — 70. 

what family was it superintended 1 What rites were practised 
by the Arabians in common with the Jews and Egyptians 1 
[64] To whom do the Arabians trace their origin 1 To what 

a people was one of the districts of Arabia for a short time sub- 
ject 1 
[65] Where and in what year was Mohammed born 1 By whom 

b was he brought up 1 What fortunate circumstance enabled 
him to gratify his taste for seclusion 1 Where did he pass 
one month in every year 1 Of what commission did he pro- 

c claim himself the bearer 1 To whom was this doctrine exclu- 
sively preached at first 1 By whom was he opposed 1 What 
was the effect of this persecution 1 From what event do the 
Arabians date their sera 1 Where did he assume the author- 
ity of king 1 Whom did he marry 1 By what means were 
his doctrines propagated 1 In what city did he establish the 
national sanctuary 1 What conquests did he achieve 1 What 

d potentates did he invite to embrace Islamism 1 Where did 

he die 1 What issue did he leave behind him 1 
[66] Who was the first caliph 1 What celebrated work did he 
compile 1 What wars were begun by his general 1 By whom 
was he succeeded 1 
[67] What city was taken by his generals 1 Were any other 

a conquests achieved by them 7 For what purpose did he visit 
Palestine'? On what terms was toleration granted to the 
Christians 1 What fortunate event enabled the Arabians to 
take rank as a naval power 1 By whom was Egypt subdued 1 
What account of the destruction of the Alexandrian library 
is supposed to be incorrect 1 
[68] By whom was Omar succeeded'? What conquests were 

b completed by him 1 What famous work of art was soldi 

What was the fate of Othman'? 
[69] By whom was he succeeded 1 By whom was the new caliph 
placed on the throne 1 Why was he not generally recog- 

c nized? What measures did he adopt for the purpose of 
strengthening his authority'? By whom was he resisted? 
What conspiracy was entered into, and what were its results 1 
In whose favor was Ali compelled to abdicate % 
[70] From whom is the name of Ommaijad derived'? To what 
place did the first caliph of this race transfer the royal resi- 

a dence 1 What other important change did he effect 1 Under 
what sovereigns were the Arabian dominions most extensive 1 
By whom were they invited into Africa 1 What conquests 

B did they achieve in that quarter of the globe 1 By whom 
were they invited into Spain 1 Where did they engage the 
Goths, and with what success 1 By whom were the Arabian 

c generals recalled 1 How was the bravery of Musa rewarded 1 
What privileges were the Spanish Christians permitted to re- 
tain 1 By whom was an attempt made to wrest Gaul from 
the Frankish kings, and with what success'? Where were 

D battles fought 1 What eastern countries were subdued by 
the Arabians 1 What was the effect of their success in India 1 
In what struggles were the reigning dynasty engaged during 
the progress of these- events'? By whom was the throne of 



71 77.] OP MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. 175 

a the Abbasides firmly established 1 What sanguinary meas- 
ures were, adopted for the destruction of the Ommaijad dy- 
nasty ? Which of the Ommaijad princes escaped, and where 
did he establish himself? 
[71] In what light was Islamism viewed by its founder ? Name 

b the different branches of the Mohammedan system. What 

c are its principal articles of faith? What duties are enjoined 
by the moral law ? What sins are permitted ? Of what writ- 
ings do the sacred books of the Mohammedans consist ? Was 

D any other work subsequently published ? To what sects did 
the publication of this work give birth ? To what circum- 
stances do you attribute the rapid propagation of Mohamme- 
danism ? 
[72] In whom was the supreme authority vested ? What share 

a had the people in the administration 1 At what period did 
the power of the caliphs become completely despotic ? To 
what circumstances do you ascribe the gradual increase of 
luxury ? What authority was possessed by the lieutenants 
of the provinces ? What effects resulted at a later period 
from their possession of this authority ? 
[73] What specimens of early Arabian poetry are extant? 

b Where are the names of their authors inscribed ? What cir- 
cumstances prevented the cultivation of science during the 
reign of the Abbasides ? With the erection of what works 

c did the golden age of Arabian architecture commence? Why 

were painting and sculpture utterly neglected ? 
[74] Why were trade and manufactures in high estimation 
among the Arabians ? How far did their maritime trade ex- 

D tend westward and southward ? By what means was their 
land traffic carried on ? Where were the principal markets 

a for eastern and western produce ? On what shores did com- 
merce especially flourish ? 

§ 17. The modem Persian empire. 
[75] By whom was the Persian empire founded ? What was its 
extent under Chosroes I. and II. ? Into how many provinces 
b" was it divided ? What name was given to the capital city 

with its suburbs ? 
[76] With what nations were the Persians generally at war? 
c What is recorded of Chosroes I. ? Before whom was he com- 
pelled to retreat ? On what conditions did he renounce his 
claims on Colchis? How long did he reign? By what 
D measures did he promote the prosperity of the empire ? To 
what offices was the government of the four provinces in- 
trusted? How did he encourage agricultural enterprise? 
What plans did he adopt for the promotion of learning ? 

§ 18. The Sclav onians. 

[77] By what names were the eastern neighbors of Germany dis- 

a tinguished until the beginning of the fifth century ? For what 

name was the last of these exchanged ? By whom were these 

tribes incorporated into the Gothic and Hunnish empires? 

What territory did they retain after the dissolution of these 



176 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [78 85. 

B kingdoms 1 Into how many tribes were they divided ? Who 
was recognized as king by most of the Slavish tribes ? What 
happened to the Slavish confederacy after his death ? Mention 
some of the new empires which arose from its ruins. Under 
whose dominion did the southern Slaves remain ? 
[78] Mention some particulars in which a similarity is discernible 

c between the Slavish and Germanic tribes. What traces do we 

d find of physical and moral difference ? Did their languages 

a at all resemble one another 1 

§ 19. Other nations in the East of Europe. 
[79] In what countries did the Avari establish themselves? 
b What was the extent of their empire in the year 600 ? By 
the secession of what states were its limits circumscribed in 
the following century'? 
[80] What countries had been occupied from time immemorial 
c by the Bulgarians ? In what century did they invade the 
d Byzantine empire ? What barriers did they surmount ? To 
whom were they indebted for deliverance from the tyranny 
a of the Avars 1 How long had they been tributary to that 
nation ? What portion of his empire was inherited by his 
third son'? 
[81] Of what countries were the Chazares masters in the seventh 
century ? With what nations were they engaged in almost 
perpetual warfare'? By whom, and for what purpose, was 
the Caucasian' wall erected? 

§ 20. The Frankish empire under the Carlovingians. 
[82] What kingdoms were governed by Pepin the Short? By 

b whom, and under what circumstances, was Pepin invited into 
Italy ? What title was conferred on him by the Pope ? Against 
what nation was he enjoined to undertake a crusade ? What 
possessions were wrested from the Lombards? To whom 

a were they presented ? What grievous crime had been com- 
mitted by the Frieses ? What other nations were subdued 
by Pepin ? 
[83] Where and in what year was Charlemagne born? With 
whom did he share the throne ? By what event was he made 
sole king of the Franks ? Whom did he exclude from the 
succession? 
[84] In what manner did this act of injustice eventually occasion 

b the invasion of Lombardy ? In what city was Desiderius be- 
sieged ? What was the issue of this war ? How did Charle- 
magne frustrate an attempt of the Lombard nobles to reinstate 
Desiderius on the throne ? 
[85] Into how many provinces was the Saxon nation divided ? 

c With whom had they been engaged in hostilities from the 

a eaiiiest times? How was the preaching of the Frankish mis- 
sionaries received by the Saxons ? What measure was de- 
termined on at the diet of Worms? What fortress was 
stormed by Charlemagne in the first campaign? Against 
whom did Charlemagne march after his first Italian campaign ? 

B What success attended this movement? What happened 



86 — 94.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 177 

- during his second campaign in Italy 1 Of what act of treach- 
ery were the Saxons guilty, and how was it punished 7 What 

c was the immediate effect of this severity 7 What became of 
the Wittekind and Alboin 7 How were the Saxons finally 
subdued 7 
[86] At whose instance did Charlemagne invade Spain 7 What 

d name was given to the district annexed to the Frankish em- 

a pire 7 What celebrated commander was slain at Roncesvalles 7 
[87] By whom was Duke Tassilo abetted in his rebellion against 

b Charlemagne 7 How was he punished 7 What punishment 

was inflicted on his confederates 7 By what sovereign was 

the whole of their country afterwards ravaged 7 By what 

name was it now distinguished 7 

[88] What was the result of the war carried on by Charle- 

c magne's son against the Danes and Wilzes 7 What river was 
recognized as the boundary between the Danish and Frankish 
territories 7 
[89] What measures were adopted for the defence of the different 

frontiers 7 
[90] By whom and with what object was Charlemagne invited 

a to visit Rome 7 What dignity was conferred on him in return 

b for these services 7 What was the character of the new re- 
lation between the pope and the emperor 7 In what manner 
was this supremacy mutually recognized 7 
[91] What bishoprics were founded by Charlemagne in Saxony 7 

c By whom was Charlemagne assisted in the establishment of 

d schools 7 What measures were adopted for restoring the re- 
spectability of the clergy 7 What proofs have -we of the 

a affection of Charlemagne for his mother tongue 7 What plan 
was adopted for the improvement of church music 7 
[92] To what nations were codes of laws given 7 In what man- 

a ner was a code formed for the empire in general 7 By what 

measure was the execution of the laws facilitated 7 
[.93] Were any important changes effected in the constitution by 

b Charlemagne 7 What sort of opposition did the emperor 
encounter in establishing the feudal system 7 What division 

c of estates was still retained 7 Which of the court offices 
was abolished, and for what reason 7 Who were the em- 
peror's vicegerents in spiritual and in temporal matters 7 
[94] How many general assemblies were held in the course of 
the year 7 What name was given to the first of these meet- 

d ings, and for what purpose was it convened 7 At what place 
was the second meeting held 7 What sort of questions were 
decided at it 7 What plan did Charlemagne adopt for obtain- 

a ing a more accurate knowledge of each province 7 From 
what classes of persons were these officers selected 7 What 
were their duties 7 From what description of persons was 

B military service required 7 What indulgence was granted to 
those who possessed less than the legal qualification 7 By 
whom was the militia of each province commanded 7 What 
fine was imposed on those who neglected to appear at the 

c place of rendezvous 7 Were any persons exempt from this 
service 7 On whom was the punishment of death still inflicted 7 
From what sources were the imperial revenues derived 7 
8* 



178 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [95 109. 

[95] What measures were adopted for the encouragement of 
commerce ? How had it been crippled ? Among whom did 
d Charlemagne divide his empire ? Who succeeded him in the 
imperial and royal dignities ? From whom did he receive his 
crown 1 To whom was the kingdom of Italy granted, and on 
what condition? When and where did Charlemagne die, and 
where was he buried'? 
[96] What was the character of Lewis the Pious ? What new 
a regulations did he promulgate ? Among whom did he divide 
his emphe ? Which of his sons was raised to the imperial 
throne ? What portions of the empire were granted to the 
others ? On what prince was an atrocious act of cruelty per- 
petrated 1 Who succeeded him as king of Italy ? 
[97] What was the name of the emperor's second wife, and what 
b issue had he by her ? What provocation occasioned the re- 
bellion of the emperor's sons ? Where was a battle fought, 
and what name was given to the field ? What was the result 
c of this engagement? By whom was Lewis restored ? What 
became of Pepin and his sons ? Among whom, and by whose 
advice, were the dominions of Lewis divided'] What district 
was allotted to each ? 
[98] What circumstances occasioned the battle of Fontenay, and 
a what was its result ? What famous treaty was concluded at 
[99] the end of this war? 

[100] Describe the districts severally allotted to the three sons of 
[101] Lewis the Pious ? 

b Whence do you derive the name of Lorraine 1 
[102] By what untoward circumstance were these three king- 
c doms thrown into confusion ? Who were the Normans, and 
in what part of France did they carry on their predatory war- 
fare ? Did any other pirates visit Italy? What depredations 
did the Normans commit in Germany ? By what tribes was 
the eastern frontier of his kingdom disturbed during the 
reign of Charles the Bald ? 
[103] Among whom did Lothar I. divide his kingdom? By 
a whom was Lorraine seized after the death of Lothar II. 
[104] Who succeeded Lewis II. as king of Italy and Roman em- 
peror? Among whom was the kingdom of Lewis the German 
divided ? Which of these became sole occupant of the throne 
b after the death of his brothers ? By whom, and in conse- 
quence of what events, was the Frankish monarchy reunited? 
What provinces were excluded from this arrangement? 
c What cities were destroyed by the Normans? For what 
reasons was Charles the Bald deposed by his subjects ? Into 
how many portions was the Frankish empire divided after 
his death ? 
[105] To whom was the Western Frankish empire assigned ? 
[106] Who reigned in Germany? 
[107] Into how many portions was Germany divided, and by 

whom were they governed ? 
[108] Between whom was the sovereignty of Italy disputed ? 
[109] To what circumstances do you ascribe the origin and influ- 
a ence of the temporal and ecclesiastical aristocracy under the 
successors of Charlemagne ? By what practices were these 



110 114.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 179 

usurpations facilitated ] "What was the policy of the kings 
during this period 1 Mention one instance of their weakness. 
c In what provinces were the suppressed dukedoms restored 1 
To what circumstances do you attribute the increased influ- 
ence of the clergy during this period 1 What were the de- 
cretals of S. Isidore, and what effect was produced by them 1 

§ 21. The East Prankish empire under the two last 
Carlovingians. 
[110] By whom and in what manner were Italy and Burgundy 
a reunited to the German empire 1 By whom were the Nor- 
mans utterly defeated 1 To what circumstances do you as- 
b cribe their perseverance in acts of piracy after this defeat ] 
By whom were the Moravians expelled from their country 1 
[111] Who were the guardians of Lewis the Child] In what 
c countries, and for what purpose, were national dukedoms 
established'? Where was the ducal dignity re-established] 
How many national dukes were in Germany at this period ] 

§ 22. Empire of the East Franks under Conrad I. of Franconia. 
[112] By what nations was an attempt made to establish indepeu- 

a dent kingdoms after the extinction of the Carlovingian race 1 
By whom was Otho the Illustrious elected emperor, and on 
what grounds did he refuse the crown] Who was then 
chosen ] Was not the election more unanimous on this than 

b on the former occasion 1 What becnme of Lorraine ] How 
was Conrad occupied during the whole of his reign] By 
what marauders were the provinces infested ] What was the 

c conduct of the Duke of Bavaria ] Whom did Conrad recom- 
mend as his successor ] How many German dukedoms were 
there at this time 1 

^ 23. The GcrmoM empire under kings of the house of Saxony. 

.[113] By what surname was Henry I. distinguished] How did 

he carry into effect the plans of his predecessor] What 

d province did he reunite to the empire ] For how long a pe- 
riod, and on what terms, did he conclude an armistice with 
the Hungarians ] How was this time employed ] What for- 

a tresses did he build] What surname did he obtain from 
this circumstance ] Against what nations was the army ex- 
ercised in warfare ] What advantage was obtained by the 
conquest of the Sclavonians] How many mai'gravates were 

b established for the defence of the frontiers ] Where did Hen- 
ry engage the Hungarians, and with what success ] 
[114] By whom was he succeeded ] What remarkable circum- 
stance distinguished his election ] Where was the ceremony 
of coronation performed from this time ] With whom was he 

c engaged in disputes during the first years of his reign ] In 
what manner did Otho attempt to diminish the influence of 
the dukes ] How was his own authority strengthened ] On 
whom, and for what service, did he confer his own dukedom 

D of Saxony ] Into how many districts did he divide Lorraine ] 
By what measures was the constitution in church and state 
materially improved ] 



180 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [115 — 120. 

[115] "What was the issue of his war with the Danes 1 "What 

a happened to the duke of Bohemia ? What circumstances oc- 
casioned Otho's first campaign in Italy ? Whom did he mar- 

b ryi On whom did he bestow the sovereignty of Italy? 
Where were the Hungarians defeated, and what important 
event followed ? What effect was produced by a victory over 

c the Wendish Sclavonians ? What title was revived by Otho 
1. ? How long was this title borne by the German kings ? 
By what measures did Otho endeavor to improve the condi- 

a tion of his cities ? What advantages did he gain in his third 

Italian campaign'? To whom did he marry his son"? 

[116] What events occurred during the war between Otho II. 

and the King of France ? How was this war terminated ? 

What circumstance furnished Otho with an excuse for enter- 

b ing Lower Italy with an army ? By whom and where was he 
attacked, and with what result ? Where did he die ? 
[117] By whom was he succeeded? Who were the guardians of 
the young king ? "What province was erected into a seventh 
duchy? By what party was an attempt made to emancipate 
Eome from the German yoke ? What measures were adopted 
by Otho in consequence of this rebellion ? What favorite pro- 

c ject was he unable to carry out ? By what peculiarity was 

the election of his successor distinguished ? 

[118] What surname was given to him ? What conditions were 

required from him, which had never been imposed on any of 

his predecessors ? What attempts were made by some of the 

a provinces during his absence in Germany ? How were these 
attempts defeated by Henry ? What circumstance occasioned 
his second visit to Italy ? What event terminated the con- 
tests between native and German princes for the possession 

b of the Italian crown? What advantages were gained in a 
third Italian campaign? To whom was Henry in a great 
measure indebted for his victory ? How were they rewarded ? 

ty 24. The German empire under the Franconian emperors. 

[119] By whose suffrages was Conrad II. elected ? Where was 
he crowned? What was the first act of his reign? What 
country was added to the German empire, and under what 
circumstances ? Over what countries was the supremacy of 
c Germany re-established ? To whom did Conrad cede a por- 
tion of his dominions ? What was the effect of this cession ? 
What law was passed by Conrad during his second visit to 
Italy ? By what measure was his family influence extended ? 

[120] What was the first act of Henry's administration? In 
a what manner did he establish the imperial authority, without 
the intervention of any secondary power, over the whole of 
southern Germany? Was the same effect produced in any 
other countries ? What foreign prince was reduced to sub- 
mission? How was the feudal sovereignty over Hungary 
secured? What kingdoms and dukedoms did the German 
B empire comprise at this time ? What measures were adopted 
for the better maintenance of peace in Alemannia. Bavaria, 
and Carinthia ? What was the condition of Franconia at this 
time ? What was the " Treuga Dei ? " 



121 126.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 181 

[121] "What was Henry's next project 1 What were the two most 
glaring- ecclesiastical irregularities at this time] In what 
manner did Henry endeavor to re-establish unity in the 

c Church'? How was he rewarded for these services 1 What 
sort of ecclesiastical laws were enacted 1 Who resisted his 

d plans for subjecting the Church to the temporal power % 

What benefit did Henry confer on the Normans 1 By what 

tenure were they afterwards content to hold their possessions 1 

[122] At what age was Henry IV. called to the throne 1 Who 

a was his guardian 1 By whom was the administration of the 
kingdom usurped 1 Who wrested it from his hands 1 What 
sentence was passed on Adalbert] By whose threats was 

b Henry compelled to adopt this measure 1 ? What German 
prince was unjustly deprived of his dukedom, and on whom 
was it conferred ] What was the conduct of Henry after the 

c death of Adalbert 1 Against what country did he particu- 
larly carry on his operations 1 Whom did he detain a pris- 
oner 1 
[123] What circumstances occasioned the Saxon insurrection 1 

d Before what city did the Saxon, army first appear 1 Whither 
did Henry fly, and how was he received by the citizens'? 

a Where and on what terms was peace concluded'? Who 

refused to ratify this peace "? What was the effect of their 

refusal 1 

[124] What offices had been held by Hildebrand before his 

elevation to the papal throne 1 What was his favorite pro- 

b ject 1 How did he prepare the way for its ultimate success 1 

c What important ally was secured 1 What title did Hilde- 
brand assume, and for what reason 1 What measures did he 
adopt for securing the independence of the clergy '? What is 

d meant by " investiture 1 " What was the conduct of Henry 

a under these circumstances'? How did Gregory punish his 
audacity 1 Why did Henry cross the Alps, and how was he 
_ treated by the Pope on his arrival in Italy 1 On what condi- 
tions did he obtain a reversal of the sentence of excommuni- 

b cation % Who had been chosen emperor during his absence 1 
On what terms was the new emperor elected 1 What was his 

c ' fate 1 Whom did Henry place on the papal throne in the 
room of Gregory VII. 1 To whom did he leave the prosecution 
of the war in Germany 1 From what pope did he receive the 
imperial crown 1 After what important victory 1 What be- 

r> came of Gregory VII. "? Where did he die 1 Who had been 
elected emperor during Henry's absence in Italy 1 By what 
nations was he chosen '? How long did he reign 1 
[125] By whom, and at whose instigation, was the crown of Italy 

a assumed] How was he punished for this act of treason'? To 
whom was the succession secured, and on what conditions 1 

b How was this compact violated'? Of what act of violence 

were the conspirators guilty, and what was its effect 1 

Where did Henry IV. die 1 Where was his body afterwards 

buried 1 

[126] What twofold object had Henry V. in view 1 ? How was the 

c first of these objects promoted 1 What proposal was made by 
the pope, and how was it received by the German clergy 1 



182 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [127 135. 

D To what conditions was he compelled to accede 1 On what 
grounds was this decree annulled '? How long did the contest 

a last, and how was it terminated 1 What were the conditions 
of this compact 1 

Changes in the Constitution during the Saxon and Franconian 
period. 
[127] What practice disappeared with the extinction of the Car- 
b lovingian line 1 Was the hereditary right of succession en- 
tirely abolished 1 When did the election of the successor to 
the throne take place 1 At whose election was the elective 
c character of the monarchy fully established 1 How were the 
limits of the royal authority defined 1 
[128] Whose functions were usurped by the dukes after the 
d death of Charlemagne 1 How was their authority crippled 1 
By whom were they nominated 1 ] In whose reign were most 
of the dukedoms made hereditary % 
[129] In whose reign was the number of margraves increased 1 
a What powers did they possess 1 
[130] What were the duties of the counts palatine 1 Who was 

the most important among them 1 
[131] Were the counties hereditary or elective under the Fran- 
b conian kings 1 What was the most important duty of the 
count 1 

§25. Italy. 

[132] How long was Italy governed by kings of its own 1 By 
whom was it reunited to Germany 1 What was its condition 

c after the death of Arnulf 1 By whom was the country ravaged 

during this period'? 
[133] By whom was a fruitless attempt made to deprive Henry 

a II. of the Italian crown 1 What was the condition of Italy 
under the Othos 1 What privileges were conferred by them 
on the priesthood'? What measures were adopted by the 
Emperor Conrad for restraining the power of the great feudal 
lords 1 What important privilege was at the same time se- 
cured to the people'? What revolutionary measure was 
adopted by the Lombard cities during the reigns of Henry 
IV- and Henry V. 
[134] By whom were the Venetian Islands originally peopled 1 

b How were they governed in the first instance % To what na- 
tions were they successively subject? At what period was 
the form of government changed 1 When, and for what cause, 
was their connection with the Byzantine empire dissolved'? 

c What island became the seat of government and centre of a 
maritime city'? By what conquests did the Venetian repub- 
lic enlarge its dominions'? To what advantageous circum- 
stances was it indebted for its importance 1 
[135] Who laid the foundation of the pope's temporal power'? 

d What provinces were settled on the papal see, and by whom 
was this endowment confirmed 1 By what name was this ter- 
ritory distinguished'? What addition was made to it by 
Henry III.'? What- concession was made by the pope in re- 
turn for this benefit 1 Through whose liberality was a still 



136 — 149.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 183 

more important accession of territory obtained"? On what 
terms were Apulia and Calabria held by the Normans 1 Of 
what nature was the pope's authority within the walls of 
Rome, and throughout the dukedom in which it was situated 1 

[136] "What sort of government was established in Lower Italy 
b on the ruins of the Lombard empire 1 "What was its condition 
at first, and subsequently 1 "What provinces separated from 
it, and formed independent principalities'] "What districts 
were retained by the Greeks 1 By what people were these 
districts perpetually molested'? 

[137] To whom did the whole of Lower Italy become a prey in 
c the fourteenth century 1 "When did they first visit Italy 1 
"What city did they build 1 "What Norman noble was invested 
by the pope with the dignity of duke, and what fiefs were 
D granted to him 1 Under what pretence did he raise an army 1 
Where did he obtain a victory 1 Against what city did he 
a advance 1 By what circumstances was he compelled to re- 
turn "? Where, did he die 1 By what prince were Apulia and 
Calabria united with Sicily 1 ? What name was given to the 
new kingdom 1 

[138] By whom was Sicily taken from the Byzantines, and to 
whom were the conquerors compelled to surrender it 1 

[139] To whom did Sardinia belong from the year 850 to 10221 

[140] To whom was Corsica at first subject 1 What two nations 
afterwards contended for the possession of it, and how long 
did the struggle continue 1 

§ 26. France under the last Carlovingians. 

[141] By whom, and under what circumstances, was Otho elected 
king of France'? 

[142] Were the anticipations of the electors realized 1 

[143] Who succeeded Otho % What dignities did he confer on 
Rollo'? What was the effect of this arrangement'? Of what 
• province did Charles take possession after the extinction of 
the Carlovingian race in Germany 1 

[144] By whom, and for what reason, was Robert elected 7 What 
- was his fate 1 

[145] By whom was he succeeded 1 What became of Charles % 
a By whom was Lorraine reunited with Germany % 

[146] Who succeeded Rudolph 1 What surname did he bear 1 

[147] Against whom, and with what results, did his successor 
b carry on war *? How long did Lewis V. reign, and by whom 
was he succeeded'? 

[148] Why was his uncle Charles excluded from the succession'? 
Whence did Hugo derive his surname of Capet? 

[149] What was the political condition of France at this time 1 
What provinces were under the immediate control of the Car- 
lovingians 1 Name the immediate fiefs of the crown 1 What 
was the foundation of the distinction between Northern and 
Southern France "? By what peculiarities of character were 
a the inhabitants of these two districts distinguished 1 What 
distinct legal codes were established in the North and in the 
South of France 1 



184 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [150 159. 

§ 27. France under the four first Capets. 

[150] By whom was the dukedom of Francia annexed to the 

crown? What measures did he adopt for conciliating the 

clergy and lay nobles ? After whose death was he generally 

b recognized as king 1 What was the extent of his authority ? 

[151] By whom was he succeeded ? What territory was added 
by the new sovereign to the possessions of the crown ? On 
whom was it conferred"? Of what royal family was he the 
ancestor ? 

[152] By what authority was the Treuga Dei established'? 

[153] What remarkable event occurred in England during the 
c reign of Philip I. of France? 

ty 28. England lender the West Saxon kings. 
[154] By whom were the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united 
under one crown ? What name did he give to the island of 
d Britain ? By what foreign invaders was the kingdom ravaged 
during the reign of Egbert ? 
[155] What was the condition of England at the accession of 
a Alfred the Great ? Where was he compelled to pass a winter ? 
How did he obtain information respecting the Danes? In 
what manner did he avail himself of this knowledge ? What 
concessions were extorted from the Danish leader ? 
[156] What measures were adopted by Alfred for the security 
b of his kingdom ? How was the administration of justice fa- 
cilitated ? What plans were adopted for the advancement of 
c learning ? Against what enemies was Alfred now compelled 
to take the field ? By what Anglo-Saxon king was tribute 
paid to the Danes, and what was the effect of this compro- 
D mise ? What cruel act was perpetrated byEthelred, and how 
was it avenged ? 

§ 29. Supremacy of the Danes in England. 
[157] With whom did Canute at first share his throne ? Into 
a how many provinces did he divide England ? What impor- 
tant reforms did he effect ? Of what other dominions did he 
b become possessed by negotiation or conquest ? Among whom 
was his empire divided after his death? Who succeeded 
Harold on the English throne ? 

§ 30. Restoration and extinction of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. 

[158] By whom was Edward the Confessor governed ? What 
c innovations excited discontent among the Saxon inhabitants ? 
d By whom was he succeeded ? What was the fate of Harold 

II.? What surname was given to William in consequence of 

this victory ? 

§ 31. Scotland. 

[159] By what races was Scotland inhabited ? By whom, and 

a under what name, were the two kingdoms united? What 

enemies were successfully resisted by the Scots ? By what 

English monarch was Cumberland granted to the king of 

Scotland ? On what conditions ? By whom were Scotland 



160 — 167.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 185 

and Cumberland conquered ? On what terms were they per- 
mitted to retain their kings ? 

§ 32. Ireland. 

[160] Into how many states was Ireland divided at the period of 

b its conquest by the English ? Name these states. In what 

century, and by whom, were the Irish converted to Christi- 

c anity ? By what unfavorable circumstances, and for how long 

a period, was the progress of civilization retarded in Ireland ? 

<) 33. Spain. 
[161] Under what Caliphs, and for how long a period, did the 
d Arabian portion of the Peninsula enjoy uninterrupted pros- 
perity ? By what river was Arabian separated from Christian 
a Spain, and what was the amount of its population ? Describe 
its capital city. "What were the chief employments of the 
population ? To what extent were the arts and sciences cul- 
tivated'? 
[162] After what event, and under what circumstances, was 
b Arabian Spain annexed to the empire of Morocco ? 
[163] How many Christian kingdoms were there in Spain at the 

conclusion of this period? 
[164] To which of these kingdoms did Portugal belong? In what 
c, d year was it separated ? 

§ 34. The Byzantine empire under the Macedonian emperors. 
[165] What countries did the empire comprehend at the com- 

a mencement of this period ? By whom, and under what title, 

b was the code of Justinian republished ? What countries 
were wrested from the Arabians, and by whom ? By what 
emperor was Bulgaria conquered ? Who were raised to the 
throne after the extinction of the Macedonian male line ? By 
whom was the last of these rulers deposed ? 
[166] What position did the Byzantine empire occupy at this 

c period among the kingdoms of the Christian world? By 
what name did the Byzantines designate themselves, and what 

i) appellation did they reject with scorn ? In whom were the 
legislative and executive authorities united ? By whom was 
the senate deprived of its last vestige of power ? 

§ 35. The Arabians under the Abbasides. 
[167] To what city was the seat of government transferred soon 

a after the accession of the Abbasides'? By whom was this city 
built ? Of what Christian sovereign was the Caliph Harun 
al Raschid a contemporary and friend ? By which of the 

b Caliphs were the arts and sciences fostered ? Mention the 
causes which eventually produced the dissolution of the Ca- 
liphate. How did the first of these causes operate in Spain, 
Africa, and Asia ? By whom, and at what period, were most 
of the Asiatic possessions of the Caliphs united under one 

c crown ? After what event was this union dissolved ? What 
portion of the empire remained in the hands of the Caliphs ? 

D What power was exercised by the Turkish body-guard? 
What formidable sects existed at this period ? To whom did 



186 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [168 173. 

the Caliphs intrust the affairs of government, and what office 
did they reserve to themselves 1 

§ 36. Scandinavia. 

[168] What was the political condition of Norway until the ninth 

a century 1 Who founded the Norwegian kingdom, and what 
islands were added to it by conquest 1 What became of the 
chieftains who refused to submit to his authority 1 What 

b kingdom did they found 1 By whom was Christianity intro- 
duced 1 Who conquered and divided Norway % 
[169] By whom was its independence re-established 1 By how 

c many races was Sweden inhabited 1 How were the latter sub- 
divided 1 Who placed the different tribes under one sove- 
reign 1 Where did he reside 1 By whom, and at what period, 
were the Swedes converted to Christianity 1 
[170] By whom were the Danish islands and Jutland united into 
one kingdom 1 From what fabulous hero did he trace his 

a descent 1 How long did his male descendants occupy the 
throne 1 What countries were conquered by Sweyn 1 By 
Avhom was he succeeded in England 1 By whom was Schles- 
wig annexed to the kingdom of Denmark 1 By a convention 

B with what emperor 1 What kingdom was again reduced to 
submission 1 In what manner did Canute endeavor to pro- 
mote Christianity 1 To whom was Denmark subject after his 
death 1 By whom was it emancipated 1 

§ 37. Russia. 
[171] By what tribes were the southern, northern, and central 

c parts of Russia inhabited % By what chieftain and at what 
period, was the grand duchy of Russia founded 1 What was 
its capital 1 To what city was the government afterwards 

D transferred 1 Under what circumstances was Christianity in- 
troduced into Russia 1 What Russian sovereign first em- 
braced Christianity 1 What district was conquered by this 
sovereign 7 In what manner did he endeavor to civilize his 

a subjects 1 By what title was Kiev popularly designated 1 

§ 38. Poland. 

[172] By what name were the Slaves on the middle Vistula gen- 
erally known 1 Whom did they first choose for their duke, 
and what was the date of his election 1 How long did his 
family reign in Poland 1 Which of their dukes first embraced 
b Christianity 1 Whom did he recognize as his feudal sove- 
reign? By whose assistance did his son exterminate the 
remnants of heathenism 1 In what cities did he found bish- 
oprics 1 Against what nations did he carry on wars, and with 
what success 1 What dignity did he assume a short time 
before his death 1 Under what circumstances did Poland 
again become a dukedom 1 

§ 39. Hungary. 

[173] By what other name were the Hungarians known 1 ? 
c Whence did they come 1 Under what leader 1 What country 



174 178.] OF MEDLEVAL HISTORY. 187 

did they enter 1 Of what countries did the Hungarians ob- 
D tain possession'? By whom were they driven back 1 ? In 

what century was Christianity introduced among them 1 By 

what king were several bishoprics founded 1 By whom, and 
a in what year, was he crowned 1 What became of his son ! 

By whose assistance did he recover his throne 1 By whom 

was tranquillity eventually restored 1 

$40. Religion, arts, sciences, fyc, during the first period. 
[174] In what light was the increasing influence of the clergy 

b viewed by the temporal power 1 What privileges belonged 
to the pope 1 In what cases had he judicial authority over 
laymen 1 What territories did he possess 1 How were the 

c monks generally employed ! To what causes do you attribute 

d the laxity of monastic discipline at this period 1 By what 
circumstance was a partial reformation effected 1 By what 
rule were the new convents governed 1 Who endeavored to 
introduce this rule into the convents of England 1 What new 

A orders were founded in the eleventh century '? At what pe- 
riod were cathedral chapters founded % By whom were they 
generally established % 
[175J In what manner was the cultivation of the arts and sci- 
ences promoted by the Caliphs during this period 1 
[176] What learned establishments existed in the Arabian pro- 

b vinces ] What is the general character of Arabian literature 1 

c In what sciences were the labors of their learned men most 

D successful % Why was the study of anatomy omitted "? How 

a was this defect in some measure supplied'? What works 
were produced by the Arabian school of architecture, and 
what were its characteristics 1 Who was the most renowned 

B of the Persian poets 1 What was the state of Greek litera- 
ture at this period 1 Mention the chief philosophical writers. 

c In what condition were sculpture and painting 1 Mention the 
historical works published in the West of Europe. Describe 

D the scholastic philosophy taught in the church schools during 
this period. Name the most distinguished professors of phi- 

a losophy. Where were jurisprudence and mathematics most 
successfully studied 1 At what period did the Latin cease to 

B be a living language 1 Mention the earliest specimens of 
German literature. What architectural works were produced 
during this period 1 In what condition were painting and 
music 1 In what countries did trade and manufacturing in- 
dustry principally flourish 1 
[177] To what ports was the commerce of Byzantium gradually 

c, d transferred 1 What German city was the emporium of the 
trade between the East and West, and between the North and 
South 1 To what ports did the cities of the North and South 
of France trade % By what circumstances was manufacturing 
industry chiefly promoted % 

§ 41. The First Crusade. 
[178] What practice had existed for many years among the 
a Christians of the Roman empire 1 By whom were the pil- 
b grims persecuted, and what was the effect of this intolerant 



188 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [179 185. 

measure'? By whom were the complaints of the eastern 

c Christians seconded ? What was the immediate effect of his 
preaching 1 Describe the commencement of the Crusade. 

a What was the fate of the first detachment of crusaders 1 By 
whom was an expedition on a larger scale undertaken 1 Who 
was the commander-in-chief, and what was the amount of the 

B force under his command 1 What Asiatic cities first fell into 
the hands of the crusaders 1 What extraordinary circum- 
stances attended the siege of Antiochia 1 On what general 

c was the principality of that district conferred ] By whom 
was another principality established 1 Describe the capture 
of Jerusalem. What dignity was offered to Godfrey de 

d Bouillon 1 By whom, and under what circumstances, was the 

Caliph of Egypt defeated 1 By whom was Godfrey succeeded 1 

[179] What cities were added to the kingdom of Jerusalem by 

a the new sovereign 1 Into how many districts was the king- 
dom now divided 1 

The Second Crusade. 

[180] What circumstance occasioned the second Crusade 1 By 
b what sovereigns was it undertaken, and at whose instance 1 
c What fate befell the German division of the army 1 What 
was the result of this expedition 1 

The Third Crusade. 

[181] By what monarch were the claims of Egypt to Syria and 

d Palestine revived 1 What was the result of his operations 1 

[182] What circumstance occasioned the third Crusade 1 By 

a what sovereigns was it undertaken'? How did Frederick I. 

lose his life 1 

[183] What order of knighthood was instituted by his son 1 On 

b what occasion was the banner of Austria insulted, and by 

o whom 1 On what terms was a truce concluded with Saladin 1 

What became of the island of Cyprus 1 What happened to 

Richard on his return from Palestine 1 

The (so-named') Fourth Crusade. 

[184] By what sovereign were fresh bands of crusaders sent out 1 

d Of what cities did they regain possession 1 By what nations 

was the fourth crusade undertaken 1 Did they reach Jeru- 

a salem"? What empire did they found"? Who was elected 

emperor, and what territories were assigned to him 1 What 

portions were assigned severally to the Venetians, French, 

and Lombards 1 What noble obtained the largest share, and 

b what kingdom did he found 1 By whom was a Greek empire 

established at Nicasa'? Was any other independent empire 

founded in Asia 1 By whom was the Latin empire destroyed 7 

The Crusade of Frederick II. 

[185] What unsuccessful attempts to regain Palestine had been 
c made previously to the Crusade of Frederick II. 1 What oc- 
d currence induced the pope to urge on Frederick the necessity 



186 191.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 189 

of fulfilling- the promise made at his coronation 1 "What cir- 
cumstance compelled him to defer the expedition, and in what 
a light was his conduct viewed by the pope 1 Did he revisit 
Palestine 1 

The Sixth Crusade. 

.[186] What causes occasioned, the sixth Crusade 1 By what 

b sovereign was it undertaken 1 "Where did he first land, and 

c what success attended his operations in that country ? What 

check did he receive, and on what conditions was he released 

from captivity 1 How was he employed after his liberation ? 

The Seventh Crusade. 

[187] By whom, and under what circumstances, was the seventh 

d Crusade undertaken 1 "What was his fate 1 In what year did 

the last of the Christian possessions in Palestine fall into 

the hands of the Mamelukes 1 "What was the name of this 

fortress 1 

Results of the Crusades. 

[188] In what manner was the hierarchy affected by the Cru- 

a sades 1 Mention another circumstance by which the author- 
ity of the pope over the clergy was augmented. By what 
circumstances was the wealth of the clergy increased 1 Men- 
tion an important result of the wars against the infidels as re- 
[189] gards the extension of Christian influence. 

b How was the position of the European sovereigns affected 

by the Crusades 1 
[190] What were the consequences of the Crusades to the nobili- 

c ty 1 Describe the development of the knightly power. In 
what manner were the distinctive forms of nobility created? 

d Mention the degrees of chivalry. Describe the institution of 

. the order of Knights Hospitallers. Were they known by any 
other name 1 Into how many classes were they divided, and 
what were the duties of each class 1 Into what sections was 

a the order again subdivided'? In what countries did the 
Knights Hospitallers establish themselves after the loss of 

b Palestine 1 By whom were they deprived of the last of their 
settlements'? Describe the origin of the order of Knights 
Templars. Whence did they derive their name 1 In what 
country did they seek an asylum after the loss of the Holy 

o Land, and what was their fate'? At what period was the 
Teutonic order founded, and by whom 1 For what benevo- 
lent purpose was it established 1 Of what countiy were all 
the knights natives'? What was the title of their president? 
By whom was the residence of the order removed from Jeru- 
salem, and to what place was it transferred'? What country 
was conquered by the knights, and in what city did they es- 

d tablish their residence after that conquest 1 What effect had 

the establishment of these orders on European society? 

What service did they render in Palestine 1 

[191] What effect had the Crusades on the Burgher order 1 To 

what circumstances do you ascribe the growth and prosperity 



190 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [192 — 200. 

a of their cities'? How was the peasant order affected by the 
Crusades ? 

Consequences to Trade and Manufactures. 
[192] By what nations were important commercial privileges ac- 
b quired during- the period of the Crusades ? In what coun- 
tries did the Venetians establish colonies during the fourth 
c Crusade 1 ? At what period, and by whom, were they expelled 
from Constantinople'? What circumstances rendered this 
disaster comparatively unimportant ? 
[193] To what route had the overland trade been confined in 
d former days, and into what other channels was it directed 
during the period of the Crusades ? 
[194] When was this commercial intercourse fully developed? 
a What manufactures were introduced into Europe, and to what 
countries was European produce exported during this period ? 
What was the result of this manufacturing prosperity ? 
[195] By what circumstances was the mass of geographical in- 
b formation augmented ? To what traveller was Europe indebted 
for information on this subject"? 

§ 42. The German Empire under Lothar [Lothaire] the Saxon. 
[196] Who were nominated as his successors by Henry V., and 

c on whom did the choice of the electors fall ? What conces- 
sions did he make to the pope ? On whom did Lothar bestow 
the hand of his daughter and the dukedom of Saxony? 

d What service did his son-in-law render to Lothar ? How often 
did Lothar visit Rome, and what was his object on each of 
these occasions? 

ty 43. The German Empire under the Hohenstanfeji. 

[198] Who ascended the German throne after Lothar's death? 
a What became of Henry the Proud ? On whom was his duke- 
dom of Bavaria conferred ? By whom was the war carried on 
b after Henry's death ? What remarkable circumstance attend- 
ed the capture of Weinsberg ? What name was given to the 
hill in commemoration of this event? To whom was the 
dukedom of Saxony restored ? In what respect was Conrad 
inferior in dignity to his predecessors ? Had this happened 
on any previous occasion ? 

[199J By whom was Conrad succeeded ? In what manner was 
c he connected with each of the rival houses ? How did he en- 
deavor to effect a reconciliation between the two factions? 
On whom was Bavaria bestowed, and how was the Margrave 
of Austria indemnified for the loss ? What was the great ob- 
ject of the new emperor's policy ? How many times did he 
visit Italy ? 

[200] What cities were taken in his first campaign ? For what 

a, b purpose was he summoned to Rome, and what measures did 
he adopt on entering that city? What homage did Frederick 
render to the pope ? What calamity compelled him to return 
to Germany ? By what marriage did he reunite the kingdoms 
of Germany and Burgundy ? What duke was elevated to the 
rank of king ? 



201 211.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 191 

[201] To what city did Frederick lay siege in his second Italian 
c campaign 1 What were the principal conditions of the capi- 
tulation signed by the inhabitants 1 At what diet were the 
d relations of Italy to the emperor settled 1 What attempt on 
the part of the Milanese occasioned a fresh war 1 What was 
a the fate of Milan 1 Which of the two popes elected by the 
college of cardinals was supported by Frederick 1 
[202J What occurred during Frederick's third visit to Italy 1 
[203] What pope was placed on the papal throne in Frederick's 
b fourth Italian campaign 1 What disaster compelled him to 
recross the Alps 1 What circumstance occasioned the revolt 
of the Lombard cities, and what were the results of that 
movement 1 
[204] By whom was Frederick abandoned in his fifth campaign 1 
c What were the consequences of this defection 1 At what place 
was a formal peace concluded with the Lombards! What 
were the conditions of this new treaty 1 
[205] What measures were adopted by Frederick on his return 
d, a to Germany 1 What became of Henry the Lion 1 In what 
court did he seek an asylum 1 On whom were Bavaria and 
Saxony bestowed ! What occurred at the diet of Mainz 1 
[206] How was Frederick received by the Italians on his sixth 
visit to Italy 1 To whom did he marry his eldest son Henry 1 
Where was the marriage celebrated 1 
[207] What office had Henry filled during the absence of his 
b father in Palestine 1 What was the result of his visit to Na- 
ples 1 Who was placed on the Sicilian throne 1 Where did 
c Henry receive the imperial crown 1 Whence drd he derive 
funds for a second campaign in Italy 1 What was the result 
d of that campaign'? What acts of cruelty were perpetrated 
by Henry, and how was he punished by the pope 1 What 
cherished plan of Henry's was rendered abortive, and by 
a what circumstance 1 Where did he die, and what feelings 
were excited by his death 1 
[208] What was the fate of Henry the Lion 1 
[209] What two princes were elected to fill the vacant throne 1 
_ b By what party was each of them supported % To whose arbi- 
tration was the disputed election referred, and how did he 
decide 1 What was the fate of Philip 1 
[210] What was the first act of Otho's reign 1 By what means 
c did he effect a reconciliation with the house of Hohenstaufen 1 
d What insult did he offer to the pope, and how was it avenged % 
a Where did Otho die, and under what circumstances 1 
[211] What promises were made to the pope by Frederick II. on 
b his accession 1 Were these engagements fulfilled % In what 
condition did Frederick find Apulia on his return from Pales- 
tine 1 Through whose intervention did he effect a reconcilia- 
tion with the pope 1 What important reform was effected in 
c Apulia 1 What was the fate of Frederick's son Henry 1 On 
whom, and subject to what conditions was the duchy of 
Brunswick Lflneburg conferred'? For what piu-pose, and 
with what result, did Frederick visit Italy 1 Who acted as 
d regent during his absence 1 What circumstance retarded the 
surrender of Milan % 



192 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [212 221. 

[212] "What success attended the endeavors of the pope to place 
a rival sovereign on the German throne 1 By what tribes was 
the North-East of Europe overrun at this time % How far did 
they penetrate, and where did they engage the Germans 1 

[213] By whom was Gregory IX. succeeded, and what was the 
e policy of the new pontiff? Who was elected in opposition to 
Frederick, and by what nick-name was he distinguished'? 
c How long did he survive his election 1 "Who was then chosen, 
and by what electors 1 Who was left to oppose the usurper 
in Germany'? By what generals was Frederick assisted in 
the Lombard war'? Where did Frederick die"? 

[214] What circumstance induced Conrad to quit Germany? 

d, a What issue did he leave 1 By what public acts was the reign 
of William of Holland distinguished 1 "What was his fate 1 

§ 44. The Interregnum in Germany. 

[215] On whom did the choice of the electors fall after William's 
b death 1 "What was the condition of the empire at this period 1 
Which of the rival sovereigns was afterwards set aside by the 
electors, and on whom did their choice then fain 

§ 45. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

[216] By whom was the kingdom of the Two Sicilies founded 1 

c "Who were his immediate successors 1 By whom, and for how 

long, was the Sicilian throne usurped 1 

[217] What reforms were effected by Frederick I. (Hohenstau- 

a fen) "? Who was Manfred, and what was his fate 1 "Who was 

Cohradin'? 
[218] By whom was he assisted, what battle did he fight, and 
b what was his fate 1 To whom did he bequeath his claims 1 
"Who wore the Sicilian crown at this time 1 How Avas the 
murder of Conradin avenged 1 "What division of the Sicilian 
empire now took place 1 

{) 46. France. 
[219] By what surname was Louis VI. distinguished 1 By what 
c measures was the sovereign authority consolidated during his 
reign ? By whom, and subject to what conditions, was ISTor- 
mandy held at this time 1 Were any attempts made to alter 
this arrangement 1 
[220] By whom was Louis VII. persuaded to take part in the 
d second Crusade 1 Who administered the affairs of his king- 
a dom during his absence 1 What portion of France was an- 
nexed to England during his reign, and under what circum- 
stances 1 
[221] With whom did Philip II. quarrel, and what attempt did 
he make in consequence of this dispute 1 What punishment 
was inflicted on John, king of England, and for what crime 1 
What advantage did the king of France gain by this arrange- 
B menf? By whom, and under what circumstances, was the 
crown of England offered to Philip 1 On what terms was an 
arrangement subsequently effected'? What advantage was 
c gained by Philip, and, what use did he make of if? What 
D religious war raged during the progress of these events] 



222 — 232.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 193 

a What steps were taken by the pope to check the progress of 
heresy"? What changes took place at this time in the politi- 
cal and ecclesiastical condition of France 1 
[222J By whom was a fresh crusade against the Albigenses un- 
dertaken 1 
[223] By what surname is Louis IX. known in history 1 Under 

b whose guardianship did he commence his reign 1 What be- 
came of the Albigenses 1 On what terms was peace esta- 

c blished with England? What measures were adopted for the 
preservation of peace at home 1 

§ 47. England. 

[224. a] Trace the pedigree of Henry II. and Stephen. 
[225] What changes were made by William the Conqueror in 
b the constitution of England 1 ? What measures did he adopt 
for the security of his throne 1 Under what title does the 
register of the lands of England still exist 1 ? 
[226] By whom was William I. succeeded, and whom did he ex- 
c elude from the succession'? 

[227] How did Henry I. obtain the crown 1 Did he commit any 
other act of usurpation 1 What cruel punishment was inflict- 
d ed on Robert 1 To what public bodies were privileges granted 
by Henry 1 Who was recognized as his successor by the no- 
bles 1 What change did this recognition effect in the consti- 
tution of England] 
[228] By whom was the succession disputed 1 What was the 
a result of this opposition ] 
[229] What dominions were inherited by Henry II. 'from his 
father and mother 1 Did he not also hold certain provinces 
in right of his wife 1 By whom were the attempts of Henry 
b to restrict the privileges of the clergy successfully resisted 1 
What was his fate, and how was Henry punished for his par- 
ticipation in this bloody act 1 To what unhappy circumstance 
. do you attribute the death of Henry'? 
[230] What prerogative of the English crown was alienated by 
c Richard 1. 1 How long did he remain in Palestine, -and what 
befell him on his journey homewards 1 
[231] Why was John deprived of his French fiefs % By what 
d pope, and for what offence, was he excommunicated 1 On 
a what terms was a reconciliation with the pope effected 1 
What important public instrument did he endeavor to set 
aside, and with what success 1 By what disease was his death 
occasioned 1 
[232] How old was Henry III. when he ascended the throne'? 
Was there not a rival candidate % By whom was he com- 
pelled to renounce his claims 1 How was the incapacity of 
b Henry manifested 1 What was the result of the discontent 
occasioned by his misgovernment % By whom was this insur- 
c rection headed 1 What measures was the king compelled to 
adopt 1 What occasioned the battle of Lewes 1 On what 
conditions was the king liberated ? Was any other member 
of the royal family taken prisoner 1 What important change 
was effected in the constitution during t' is reign ? By whom 

9 



194 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [233 237. 

d was this measure introduced 1 Who commanded the royal- 
ists at the battle of Evesham 1 In what year was that battle 
fought, and with what results 1 "What person of note was 
slain 1 

§ 48. Spain. 

[233] "With what empire did the Arabian kingdom of Spain con- 

a tinue in close connection until the end of this period'? From 
what event do you date the gradual decline of Moorish power 
both in Africa and the peninsula 1 To what circumstances 
do you ascribe the gradual preponderance of Christianity over 
Islamism in Spain 1 
[234] By whom, and into how many sovereignties, was the king- 

b dom of Leon and Castille divided 1 By whom were they re- 
united? "What provinces were added to them'? By whom 
was the conquest of these provinces principally achieved'? 

c "What Spanish sovereign was elected King of Germany 1 
"When did Navarre cease to be an independent kingdom'? 
"What provinces were added to the kingdom of Arragon 1 By 

D whom, and under what circumstances, were these provinces 
annexed'? "What Spanish monarch became King of Sicily'? 
By whom had he been nominated heir to the Neapolitan 
crown 1 "What event placed him on the throne 1 

§ 49. Portugal. 

[235] Whence does Portugal derive its name 1 To whom was a 
grant of territory first made in that country 7 What were its 
a boundaries 1 What was its capital 1 Who first assumed the 
title of King of Portugal 1 By what fortunate events was he 
enabled to extend the boundaries of his infant kingdom 1 
How did he obtain the recognition of his title by the pope 1 
From what public body did he procure a constitution for his 
new kingdom 1 What city did he wrest from the infidels % 
By whom was he aided in this exploit 1 How did he further 
enlarge his kingdom 1 

§ 50. The Byzantine empire. 

[236] By whom was Isaac Comnenus placed on the imperial 

b throne'? Did he retain the crown longl Whither did he 
retire 1 Who was then invested with the purple "? To whom 
did he bequeath the imperial dignity, and on what conditions 1 

c What was the conduct of the empress 1 By whom was her 
husband defeated and imprisoned 1 In what state did he find 
the capital on his return 1 What dreadful punishment was 

d inflicted on him 1 In what condition was the empire when 
the Comneni again ascended the throne 1 By what emperors 
of that race were the encroachments of the enemies of the 
empire successfully resisted 1 From what quarters, and by 

a whom, were these attacks made'? To what circumstances do 

you attribute the feebleness of the empire at this time 1 What 

was the fate of Alexius II. 1 How long did the last of the 

Comneni reign, and by whom was he superseded 1 

[237] Who was the first emperor of the house of Angelus, and 



238 244.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 195 

by whom was he set aside 1 For what reason ] "What cruel- 
ties were inflicted on him'? By whom, and for what purpose, 
was the fourth (so-called) Crusade undertaken"? 
[238] Give some account of the Latin empire, and those of 
Nicsea and Trebizoud. 

§ 51. The Abbasides. 
[239] By what people and in what year was the caliphate of the 

c Abbasides extinguished 1 "What city was taken by the in- 
vaders 1 "What cruel punishment was inflicted on the last of 
the caliphs 1 What member of the royal family escaped the 
general destruction "? In what country and during what peri- 
od did the descendants of this prince continue to exercise 

D authority 1 What was the nature of their supremacy 1 "What 
African dynasties became extinct during this and the preced- 
ing period] By what dynasties was the whole' of Arabian 
Africa now shared 1 

§ 52. The SeldschuJcs. 
[240] Who were the Seldschuks 1 "What countries did they sub- 
a due, and under what c'ommander 1 "Where did they establish 
their head-quarters 1 Of what other countries did they make 
B themselves masters ] Into how many governments was this 
empire divided after the death of Malek ] What was the ex- 
tent of their empire in its most prosperous days 1 Into whose 
hands did these small governments fall during the Crusades 1 
Which of them continued to exist, in what condition, and 
how long 1 

§ 53. The Mongols. 
[241] Who were the Mongols, and what countries did they in- 

c habit 1 Who was the most renowned of their chieftains'? 
What title did they confer on him 1 What countries did he 

D conquer'? What Russian prince was overthrown by him'? 
What countries were overrun by the sons of Dschingis-Khan 1 
What bloody victory did they gain] Where were they de- 
feated, and what measures did they adopt in consequence of 
this check 1 Was this operation rendered necessary by any 

a other circumstance 1 What dynasty did they extinguish, and 
in what year 1 In what century had their empire reached its 
widest limits'? Describe its boundaries. Where did the 
great khan reside'? To whom was the administration of the 
provinces committed'? 

§ 54. Scandinavia. 

[242] How long did Iceland remain independent, and by whom 
b was it at last subjugated 1 By what peculiarity were its man- 
ners, language, and literature distinguished'? Is there any 
exception to this general remark'? 

[243] Who was the last of the legitimate descendants of Harold 
Harfagr'? and what was the condition of Norway after his 
death 1 What islands were annexed to the Norwegian crown 1 
Was any portion of their empire alienated, and to whom 1 

[244] By what circumstances were the disturbances in Sweden 



196 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [245 249. 

c during this period chiefly occasioned 1 "What was the frequent 
result of these disputes 1 
[245] "What countries were comprehended under the name of 
d Denmark'? What additions were made to the Danish empire 
a by conquest 1 To whom, and under what circumstances, was 
the greater part of this conquered territory afterwards sur- 
rendered 1 To what circumstance do you ascribe the cessa- 
tion of intercourse between Denmark and England! With 
what country was an intimate connection formed, and what 
were its results 1 

§ 55. Russia. 

[246] Which were the two great principalities of Russia 1 How 
b many inferior principalities were there 1 By what people was 
the whole of Russia occupied in 1238 1 What cities did they 
destroy"? "Which of the Russian states retained its independ- 
ence 1 What important position did it occupy in 1267 1 On 
what conditions were the grand principalities permitted to 
c remain 1 What country was conquered during this period of 
dependence, and by whom! What brilliant victory was 
gained by his son, and what surname was given to him in 
consequence of this success'? 

§ 56. Poland under the Piasts. 

[247] To what favorable circumstance do you attribute the rapid 
improvement of Poland during this period 1 What countries 
did she now comprehend 1 What was the capital of Eastern 
Pomerania 1 Were there any obstacles to her advancement 1 
Into how many new sovereignties was the dukedom divided 
D after the death of Boleslav III. 1 Name them. What priv- 
a ilege was enjoyed by the eldest sonl By whom were the 
knights of the Teutonic order called in, and how were they 
rewarded 1 ? What were the results of the invasion of Poland 
and Silesia by the Mongols 1 

§ 57. Prussia. 

[248] Who were the Prussians, and what country did they in- 
b habit 1 What measures did they compel Conrad, duke of 
Masovia, to adopt 1 How long did this struggle continue 1 
By whom were the Teutonic knights supported 1 What cities 
did they found in Prussia 1 By whom was the government 
of the conquered territory administered 1 Where was the 
order finally established, and in what year 1 

§ 58. Hungary under the Arpads. 

[249] By how many kings of the Arpadic family was Ladislav 
c the Saint succeeded 1 In what year did this family become 
extinct 1 With what nations were the Hungarians engaged 
T) in war during this period 1 By what monarch was a charter 
granted to the Hungarians'? What terrible calamity was ex- 
perienced by the nation 1 Who was king of Hungary at that 
time, and how did he- behave 1 



250 — 252.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 197 

§ 59. Religion, Arts, Manufactures, <$*c, during the Third 
Period. 
[250] "What attempts were made by Gregory VII., and by whom 

a were they followed up ? "What effects were produced by their 

b exertions, towards the end of this period 1 By what arrange- 
ments was the ecclesiastical authority of the popes strength- 

c ened ? Name the religious orders of chivalry established in 
Palestine. Spain, and Livonia 1 "What fresh orders were cre- 

d ated from time to time ? "What was the result of attempts to 
reunite the Greek and Latin Churches'? "What religious 
communities were partially reconciled to the Church of Rome? 
By whose teaching iu the twelfth century was a variety of 

a sects produced 1 Name these sects. "What measures were 

adopted for their suppression ? 
[251] Mention the distinguishing political characteristic of this 

b and the following period. What results were produced by 

c this spirit ? In what practice do we find the germ of chival- 

d ry? To whom is it indebted for its development 1 Describe 
the degrees of chivalry. "What were its chief duties 1 How 

a was the knight rewarded for the faithful discharge of these 
duties ? "What was the origin of tournaments ? At what pe- 
riod did those exercises begin to assume a systematic charac- 
ter ? In what part of the empire was the establishment of a 

B free Burgher order most general ? To what circumstance do 
you attribute this ? Where did Frederick I. hold a diet dur- 
ing his second Italian campaign] What was the result? 
Who were appointed to execute the emperor's decrees 1 By 
whom, and for what reason, were those officers superseded? 
In whose hands had the government hitherto been ? By 
whom were the Patricians compelled to receive a more demo- 
cratic constitution 1 What name was given to the chief pop- 
ular magistrate % Of whom was he the constant opponent ? 

o What measure was adopted, whenever it was necessary 

• that the contending parties should act in concert ? By what 
name did they designate the supreme political authority? 
What do you understand by the term " Condottiere? " What 
code and system of taxation was adopted by these cities ? In 
what reign, and by what means, did the German cities acquire 
similar privileges ? Mention some of the most important of 

D these privileges. To what officer was the conservation of 
them intrusted ? By whom was he assisted ? What violent 
change was effected in the fourteenth century ? By whom 
were political privileges granted to the French cities ? By 

a what motives were they induced to make these concessions? 
How was the executive authority divided in Arragon ? At 
what period and after what model were cities founded in the 
north and east of Europe ? What advantage was obtained 
by existing communities ? Was the attempt to emancipate 
the cities from the authority of their feudal sovereign gener- 

b ally successful ? In what country especially was this authority 

maintained 1 In what country did delegates from the cities 

first appear at diets ? Was this practice imitated in other 

countries 1 

[252] From what materials were the written codes of this period 



198 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [253 256. 

generally compiled 1 Mention some of them which were the 

c work of private individuals. Give examples of charters 
granted by kings to their subjects. What changes took place 
in the administration of justice towards the conclusion of this 
period 1 
[253] By whom had the sciences hitherto been exclusively culti- 
vated 1 Under whose auspices was education more generally 

D diffused 1 How was this object mainly promoted 1 To what 
circumstance do the most ancient of these foundations owe 
their origin 1 "Where were the most celebrated theological, 
philosophical, and legal schools established 1 "Who were the 
most renowned lecturers at these schools 1 In what countries, 

A and after what model, were other universities founded 1 Name 
some of the most remarkable. By whom was the scholastic 
mode of treating theological subjects introduced 1 By what 
writer were the dogmas of Abelard condemned as heretical 1 
In what estimation were the writings of Peter Lombard held 
by the Church 1 What discovery was made in the thirteenth 
century, and what was its effect on the scholastic literature 

B of that period 1 Who were the most distinguished professors 
of philosophical scholastics 1 What studies were considered 
next in importance to theology and philosophy'? In what 
language was history written in central and western Europe 1 
By whom was the first historical work in the vernacular lan- 
guage published'? From what sources was mathematical 
science derived 1 Who was the most celebrated student in 
this department 1 Was he famous for proficiency in any other 
science "? To what circumstance do you ascribe the perfec- 
tion to which mechanics were brought ? What important 

c discovery was made during this period 1 To what subjects 
was Byzantine literature confined 1 Name some of the most 
distinguished Byzantine and Arabian writers. 
[254] What was the character of the poetry of this period'? Un- 

d der what dynasty did epic and lyric poetry attain their high- 
est degree of excellence in Germany'? How many sorts of 

a epic poetry were there 1 Name some of the most distinguished 
professors of lyric poetry. What specimen do we possess of 
the poetical contests of those days'?- What sort of poetry 
was cultivated in the south of France 1 What name was given 
to its professors, and at what courts did they recite their com- 
positions 1 Name the different sorts of poetry cultivated at 
different periods in the north of France. By whom was it 
professed"? Into what countries did the minstrelsy of the 

B Troubadours travel 1 Mention the most fruitful subject for 
romance in the history of Castille. Where was Scandinavian 
poetry most successfully cultivated "? What was the Edda % 
[255] From what country was the German or new Gothic style 
of architecture imported'? By whom was it introduced'? 
What were its characteristics 1 At what period did it attain 

c its highest perfection 1 Mention some of the most magnifi- 
cent specimens of Gothic architecture commenced in this 
century. Were secular buildings erected on a similar scale 
of grandeur 1 
[256] Mention some of the other arts which were more especially 



257 261.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 199 

d cultivated during this period. To what do you attribute this 
preference 1 In which century was painting on glass invent- 
ed? When and by whom were sculpture and painting 
elevated to the rank of independent arts 1 In what century 
were companies or unions of painters formed 1 
[257] By what countries was the Mediterranean trade chiefly 
a carried on? With what eastern seaports'? In what towns 
b did the commerce of the north of Europe principally flourish 1 
c What were the chief stations of the inland trade 1 Between 
what German and Italian cities was a commercial league 
formed, and what was the natural result of this policy'? In 
what respects did the spirit of the age manifest itself among 
merchants'? Where was this especially the case % For what 
purpose were Kansas established 1 What privileges did they 
D enjoy in foreign countries 1 What was the object of provin- 
cial unions "? What great commercial union was formed out 
of these two elements 1 Of what nature were the enactments 
a respecting maritime enterprise and commerce during this pe- 
riod 1 Were any branches of commercial adventure forbid- 
den by the Church 1 With what success 1 
[258] What circumstances were favorable to agriculture during 
this period 1 In what part of Europe was the cultivation of 
the vine most successful 1 Where were mining operations 
B carried on most vigorously? By what circumstance was the 
importance of manual crafts greatly augmented 1 What was 
their mode of carrying on business 1 Mention the principal 
sorts of manufacture, and state in what countries they were 
carried on most successfully. Where were the best articles 
c of hardware produced 1 By what city was the trade in glass 
monopolized ? Mention the circumstances which contributed 
to the advancement of commercial prosperity during this 
period. 

§ 60. Germany and Switzerland. 

[259] Name the seven electorates, distinguishing between the 
d spiritual and temporal. Mention the duchies (with their cap- 
a itals) in the west, south, and north. Enumerate the Princi- 
•B palities, Margravates, Landgravates, Burgravates, Counties, 
c Archbishoprics, and Bishoprics. How many imperial cities 
were there 1 Mention the most considerable. Between what 
sovereigns was the kingdom of Burgundy divided after its 
dismemberment 1 
[260] In what century was the right of election transferred from 
d the dukes to the great officers of the imperial household 1 
a Name these officers. Who was elected King of Germany af- 
ter the death of Richard of Cornwall 1 By whom was he pro- 
posed ? Who refused to recognize Rudolf? For what reason 1 
B How was he punished for his contumacy % What was his 
fate 1 On whom did Rudolf confer his forfeited principali- 
ties 1 What seems to have been from this period the grand 
object of the Gei-man kings 1 
[261] Through whose influence was Adolphus of Nassau placed 
on the throne 1 By what measures did he strengthen the in- 
c fluence of his family 1 How did these proceedings ultimately 



200 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [262 266. 

occasion the removal of Adolplms from the German throne 1 
Who was elected in his place ? AVhat was the fate of Aclol- 
phus ? 
[262] What success attended the plans of Albert I. for the ag- 
grandizement of his house ? What claims did he revive, and 

d with what success ? What circumstance afforded him an op- 
portunity of placing his son on the throne of Bohemia'? How 

a was this connection dissolved ? What attempt of Albert was 
resisted by the three forest cantons of Switzerland 1 By 
whom were the Swiss oppressed ? Who laid the foundation 

b of the Swiss confederacy? What happened to the two gov- 
ernors ? What was the fate of Albert 1. ? 
[263] By whom was he succeeded ? On whose motion was the 
new sovereign elected ? What success attended the attempts 
of Henry to extend the influence of his family ? To what cir- 
cumstances was he chiefly indebted for this good fortune ? 

o AYhat did he restore 1 How was he enabled to effect this ? 

What project was interrupted by his death? 
[264] By whom was he succeeded ? By what parties were the 

d new kings respectively elected ? With what nation did the 
house of Habsburg engage in war ? What were the results 
of the battles of Morgarten and Mtihldorf? What arrange- 

a ment was made between the two kings ? By what pope, and 
for what offence, was Louis excommunicated ? To whom was 
the German crown offered ? What respect was paid by Louis 
to this sentence? What dignity did he assume at Milan? 
By whom was he crowned at Rome ? Whom did he place on 
the papal throne ? Why did he return to Germany ? Where 
was the first electoral diet held ? What important resolution 

e was passed at it ? Which of the electors was absent? How 

c did Louis increase the possessions of his family? Which of 
these measures disgusted the German nobles? What was 
the effect of this distaste ? On whom did the choice of the 
electors fall? Who was elected after the death of Louis? 
By what party ? How was the contest terminated ? 
[265] From whose hands, and through whom, did Charles IV. 

d receive the imperial crown? To what subjects did he devote 

a his chief attention ? What measures did he adopt for the 
promotion of this object? What were the provisions of this 
instrument ? What mode of proceeding did it prescribe on 
the death of an emperor ? Where was the coronation to take 

B place? What rank was assigned to the electors? What 
plans of family aggrandizement were pursued by Charles? 
What provinces were annexed to his hereditary dominions ? 
Where was the first German university founded? What 

o other plans of improvement were adopted? How did he ob- 
tain the funds necessary for his operations ? Mention some 
of the most important privileges granted to the imperial cities. 

d What additions were made to the aristocratic order ? Enu- 
merate the confederacies of towns and those of the nobility. 

[266] By whom was Charles succeeded? What sovereignties 

a did he retain? What addition was made to his dominions? 
What union was formed in Swabia ? Under whose auspices ? 
What measure was adopted by Wenceslaus in consequence 



267 270.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 201 

of this proceeding- 1 By what circumstances was the dissolu- 

B tion of the confederacies of cities occasioned 1 Between what 
parties, and with what result, was the battle of Sempach 

c fought? To whom were the conquerors chiefly indebted for 
their victory ] What was the effect of a second victory 1 In 
what light was Wenceslaus regarded by his subjects 1 Where 
did he usually reside 1 What measures were adopted in con- 
sequence of his incapacity 1 
[267] How did Rupert forfeit the confidence of the nation ? 

d What measures did he adopt on his return to Germany 1 

Who were elected after his death 1 How many kings had 

Germany at this time 1 

[268] What was the great object of Sigismund's reign 1 What 

practice had been adopted for many years by the Roman and 

B French colleges of cardinals'] Where was a council held, 
and with what results ! How many rival claimants to the 
popedom were there at this time 1 What measure was adopt- 
ed for the removal of these irregularities 1 Where was the 
council assembled, and in what year'? What were its three 

c principal objects 1 How was the first of these objects attained 1 
Who were the Bohemian reformers, and where had they 

D learnt their doctrine 1 To what circumstance do you ascribe 

a the ready reception of these doctrines by the Bohemian the- 
ologians 1 What was the fate of the two reformers 1 To what 

B circumstance do you attribute the miscarriage of the third 
plan 1 Who was chosen as their leader by the disciples of 
Huss 1 What demand was made by them, and how did they 
act when it was refused 1 What name did they give to their 

c camp 1 Who commanded them 1 What act of violence did 
they commit 1 Who succeeded Wenceslaus in his hereditary 
dominions 1 How was he received by the Hussites 1 What 
was the cause of this opposition? Into how many parties 

d were they divided after Huss's death 1 What permission did 

a they extort from the council of Basle 1 To whom did Sigis- 

mund sell the electorate of Brandenburg 1 
[269] Who succeeded Sigismund on the German throne 1 What 

question did he revive 1 ^ 

[270] By whom was this question again brought forward 1 Of 

b whom did he undertake the guardianship 1 How was such 
a measure rendered impracticable ? What other plan failed 
from the same cause 1 What was the condition of Germany 
at this time 1 With what Swiss canton did Frederick form 
an alliance'? By what foreign troops was he supported'? 

c What was the result of his Swiss campaign'? What measures 
were adopted by Pope Eugenius IV. with reference to the 
council of Basle 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 Through 
whose intervention was a concordat concluded between the 
emperor and the pope 1 What effect had this proceeding on 

D the council and the rival pope 1 What success attended the 
proclamation of a crusade against the Turks ? What reasons 

a were assigned for this proclamation'? Who was the last em- 
peror crowned at Rome 1 How did Frederick increase his 

B hereditary possessions 1 What opposition did he encounter 
in Bohemia and Hungary 1 By what alliance did Frederick 

9* 



202 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [271 277. 

acquire the Netherlands and Germany'? Against what coun- 
try did Maximilian successfully maintain possession of these 
territories 1 

<j 61. The States of Italy. 

[271] By what circumstances had Venice been raised to the rank 

c of a first-rate commercial and naval power? What islands 
and seaports had she acquired 1 With what state, and for 
how many years, was she engaged in war 1 Where was peace 
concluded, and on what terms ] To what circumstances do 
you chiefly attribute the prosperity of Venice 1 When were 

d her most palmy days 1 By what power was she afterwards 
deprived of most of her Greek dominions 1 What circum- 
stance completed her ruin 1 In whom was the sovereign au- 
thority lodged 1 By whom were they chosen "? What change 
was introduced at a later period 1 
[272] By whom were the struggles of the Milanese parties terrni- 

a nated 1 Who were the heads of these parties 1 What mea- 
sures were adopted by Henry VII. 1 What noble family be- 
came the possessor of almost the whole of Upper Italy 1 By 
what means 1 On whom was the supreme authority conferred 
after the extinction of the Visconti '? What change did he 
effect in the tenure of the dukedom "? 
[273] What advantages did Genoa obtain by the restoration of 

b the Greek empire 1 How long was she engaged in war with 
Pisa, and with what results 1 To what causes do you attribute 
her weakness 1 
[274] What was the result of the struggle between the people of 

c Florence and the nobles ] Into how many classes were the 
commons divided 1 What business was carried on, generally 
speaking, by the members of the higher guilds'? By what 
family was this aristocracy of wealth headed in the fifteenth 

D century'? Who laid the foundation of their importance'? 
How was his son treated by the other bankers 7 What dis- 
tinction was afterwards conferred on him 1 How did he merit 

a this distinction 1 What cities did he embellish "? By whom 

was he succeeded 1 To which of the Medici is Florence most 

indebted 1 

[275] What happened in the March of Ancona, and other parts 

of the States of the Church, during the residence of the popes 

B at Avignon ?• What was the condition of Rome at this time 1 
What title was assumed by a plebeian in one of these revolu- 
tions 1 At what period were the States of the Church re- 
united 1 What city was afterwards added to them 1 
[276] By what family was the Neapolitan throne occupied until 

c 1435 1 Who conquered the country in that year 1 To whom 
did he bequeath Naples 1 How long did his posterity con- 
tinue to reign % 
[277] To what kingdom was Sicily annexed 1 When, and under 
what circumstances 1 



278 — 286.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 203 

§ 62. France. 

[278] From what country did Philip III. withdraw his army 
d after the death of his father 1 To whom did he marry his 
son ] What unsuccessful expedition did he undertake 1 
[279] By whom was he succeeded 1 Had the new monarch any 
other kingdom 1 What was his character ] Of what English 
a province did he obtain possession ] What occasioned the 
war 1 Why did Philip abandon Flanders ] For what offence 
was he excommunicated, and how did he avenge himself 1 
Where did the next pope but one establish his residence ] 
B How long did the pope continue to reside there'? By whom 
was the order of Knights Templars suppressed ] 
[280] Who succeeded Philip IV. 1 What act was passed in the 
c reign of Philip V. 1 By whom was Charles IV. succeeded % 
On whom was Navarre settled'? When was it reunited to 
France 1 
[281, d] Give the pedigree of Philip of Valois. 
[282] What occasioned the war between England and France % 
a How long did it continue 1 With whom did Edward III. of 
England form an alliance 1 By whom were they commanded 1 
B Where were the English victorious ] Who commanded the 
English army! What important town fell into his hands'? 
How long did it remain in possession of the English ] What 
provinces were added by Philip to the possessions of the 
French crown ] What right was conceded to him by the es- 
tates of the realm ] 
[283, c] By whom was he succeeded'? What misfortune befell 
him 1 Who commanded the English in this battle 1 What 
happened in France during his captivity 1 By whom were 
the insurgents commanded 1 What was his fate % On what 
D terms was peace concluded between England and France 1 
What concession was made by Edward III. 1 On what terms 
was liberty offered to the king of France ] Where did he die ] 
On whom did he bestow the dukedom of Burgundy ] 
[284] What distinguished services were rendered to Charles V. 
a by his general Bertrand du Guesclin ] 
[285] Under whose guardianship was Charles VI. placed'? What 
b was his character 1 By whom was the right of his guardians 
contested 1 What was the effect of these conflicting claims 1 
What was the fate of Orleans ] What important victory was 
c gained at this time by the English 1 By whom was the Duke 
of Burgundy assassinated ] To whom did his son apply for 
assistance ? Whom did Henry V. of England marry] What 
important advantage did he gain by this marriage 1 What 
issue did he leave 1 
[286] By whom was Charles VI. succeeded] What foreign 
d monarch was now proclaimed king of France 1 Who com- 
pelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans 1 Where was 
a Charles VII. crowned 1 ? What became of Joan of Arc 1 On 
what terms was a reconciliation effected between Charles VII. 
and the Duke of Burgundy ] What losses of territory were 
sustained by the English] To what circumstance do you as- 
cribe the termination of the war ] How was a standing army 



204 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [287 295. 

B first organized in France 1 What occasioned the estrange- 
ment between Charles and his son? At whose court did the 
Dauphin seek an asylum 1 
[287] By what measures did Louis XL attempt to establish the 

c absolute power of the crown 1 What was the result of this 

d policy 1 What occasioned the dissolution of the league 1 Of 
what rash act was Louis guilty 1 On what terms did he re- 

a gain his liberty'? How did he avenge himself 1 Who were 
victorious at the battles of Granson and Murten 1 Where did 

b Charles of Burgundy lose his life? What became of the 

dukedom of Burgundy 1 What territories were afterwards 

acquired by Austria 1 By what means 1 What provinces 

were annexed to France'? 

[288] What conquest was achieved by Charles VIII. 1 By whom 

c was he compelled to abandon it 1 What line expired with him % 

\ 63. England and Scotland. 

[289] What province was annexed to the English crown by Ed- 

d ward 1.1 What title was assumed by his son? By whom, 
and in whose favor, was the disputed succession to the throne 
of Scotland decided 1 How was the new king's breach of 

a faith punished 1 Who was crowned by the insurgent Scots 1 
Who succeeded Edward 1 What was his character'? AVhat 
advantage was taken of his weakness by the English nobles 
and by the Scots 1 Who conspired against Edward 1 What 
continental troops were brought against him'? What was his 
fate 1 ? 
[290] How were the conspirators punished by Edward 111.1 

b Who succeeded Eobert Bruce on the throne of Scotland "? In 
whose favor was he compelled to abdicate 1 By what conces- 
sion bad Balliol secured the favor of Edward 1 How long did 

c the disputes respecting the right to the Scottish throne con- 
tinue 1 How often, and for what purpose, did Edward con- 
voke his parliament? What division of the great council of 
the nation took place in this reign 1 
[291] Whose son was Eichard II. ? How did he commence his 
reign 1 Did he continue to reign wisely 1 By whom was he 

d deprived of almost all his authority'? Who placed the reins 
of government again in his hands 1 By whom were they a 

a second time wrested from him i What became of Richard 1 
[292] How was the reign of Henry IV. disturbed 1 Were these 

b attempts successful 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 
[293] What brilliant victory did Henry V. obtain 1 What prov- 
ince did he conquer ? Whom did he marry 1 What impor- 
tant advantage did he gain by this marriage 1 What circum- 
stance prevented his availing himself of it 1 
[294] By whom was he succeeded 1 Give the genealogical table 

of the houses of York and Lancaster. 
[295] What title did the new king assume 1 What became of 

a his possessions in that country 1 Was there no exception 1 
What effect had these losses on the minds of his subjects 1 
What was the immediate result of their discontent 1 By whom 
was this opposition headed 1 On what grounds did he claim 



296 303.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 205 

the crown 1 What wars were occasioned by this dispute ] 
B Who was nominated protector, and during what period] 
Where did the two armies meet, and with what results ] To 
what temis did Henry eventually consent] By whom was 
the war renewed] What was the fate of Richard ] 

[296] By whom was the title of king then assumed ] With whom 
c did Queen Margaret then form an alliance ] What was the 
result of this measure ] By whom was Edward supported in 
his attempt to recover the English crown] What was the 
fate of .Henry VI. ] What became of the house of Lancas- 
ter ] What member of that house escaped, and where did 
he seek an asylum ] 

[297] By whom was Edward IV. succeeded] What was his 
fate] 

[298] Who next ascended the throne ] In what battle was he 
a slain] What claims were reconciled by the accession of 
Henry VII. 1 

§ 64. The Pijrencean Peninsula. 

[299] What possession still remained in the hands of the Moors 
in 1237 ] On what kingdom was it generally dependent ] 
What was its condition ] 

[300], b] Name the two Christian kingdoms in Spain. How was 
Arragon governed] In what year, and by whose marriage, 
were the two kingdoms united ] What kingdom was added 
in 1492 ] From what event do you date the independence of 
c Navarre ] By whom was a new dynasty founded in Portugal ] 
By whom were Madeira and the Azores discovered ] Did he 
make any other discoveries ] By whom, and in what year, 
was the Cape of Good Hope discovered ] What was its first 
name ] 

§ 65. The Byzantine Empire under the Palaologi. 

_[301] By whom was the Byzantine empire reunited ] With what 
d exception ] What was the character of the sovereigns of this 
a dynasty ] What attempt was made to obtain assistance, and 
with what success ? By what circumstances were the Otto- 
mans withheld for a time ] To whom, and in what year, did 
B Constantinople surrender ] What other states fell into the 
hands of the conqueror ] Of what nation did the kingdom of 
Cyprus become a dependency ] 

% 66. The Osmans. 

[302, c] Who was Osman ] On the ruins of what kingdom did 

he found an empire ] What were its original boundaries ] 

How were they afterwards extended] What city became 

D the imperial residence ] By whom were the Osmans defeated ] 

What conquests were achieved by Mohammed II. ] 

% 67. The Mongols. 

[303] Under whom did the Mongols again become a formidable 
a power ] Of whom was he a descendant ] What kingdoms 



206 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [304 308. 

did he found 1 Against what countries did he carry on suc- 
cessful wars'? What was the extent of the empire at his 
death 1 

§ 68. Scandinavia. 

[304] By whom were the several Danish principalities reunited 1 
b Whom did the daughter of this sovereign marry 1 What 
kingdoms were placed at her disposals By what circum- 
c stances 1 To whom did the estates of Sweden offer the 
Swedish crown 7 By what treaty were the three Scandina- 
vian kingdoms united 1 What privileges were retained by 
d each 1 By whom was Margaret succeeded 1 By whom was 
the throne of Denmark and Norway then filled 1 What prov- 
inces were added to the possessions of the new royal house 1 

§ 69. Russia. 

[305] What grand principalities were united to Russia 1 Of 
a what provinces was it deprived 1 By whom, and during what 
period 1 Under which sovereign did the Russians emancipate 
B themselves 1 From the tyranny of what horde 1 Into how 
many kingdoms was the Khanate of Kaptschak divided 1 
Who was the real founder of the Russian empire 1 How far 
did he extend his dominions 1 From what nation did he ex- 
act tribute 1 What title did he assume 1 

§ 70. Poland. 

[306] Under what dynasty were Great and Little Poland united 1 
c Of what territories was Casimir the Great deprived, and by 
whom 1 What new possessions did he acquire 1 What title 
was given him, and for what reason 1 By whom was he suc- 
ceeded 1 By what means did he secure the succession for 
D his daughter 1 What province was reunited to Poland 1 By 
whose marriage 1 What name was assumed by the new sove- 
reign 1 
[307] What concessions were extorted from Wladislaw II. 1 Af- 
a ter what victory did he obtain possession of Samogitia'? 
Where was peace concluded 1 What territories were added 
by a second peace 1 In whose reigu 7 What was then the 
extent of Poland 7 

§ 71. Prussia under the Teutonic Order. 

[308, b] Where was the Teutonic order settled 7 Since what 
year 7 What countries had it acquired by conquest 7 Under 
what grand master was the order most flourishing 7 By what 
defeat was its power shattered 1 What war was terminated 
by this battle 1 ? By whom, and with what result, was Marien- 

c burg defended 1 By whom was the tyranny of the order re- 
sisted 1 Where was a second peace concluded 1 What con- 

D cessions were made by the order 1 Whither were its head- 
quarters transferred 1 By whom were Livonia, Esthonia, and 
Courland governed until 1513 % 



309 — 313.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 207 



§ 72. Hungary. 

[309] What was the result of the struggles occasioned by the ex- 
a tinction of the Arpad dynasty 1 Under what kings was the 
political condition of Hungary greatly improved 1 What Hun- 
garian sovereign became the most powerful monarch of Eu- 
B rope 1 By what conquests 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 
Of what family was the new king a member'? Name the 
c three next kings. By whom was he succeeded 1 How did 
he offend the electors 1 To whom did they offer the crown % 
To what circumstances do you ascribe the great renown of 
Matthias Corvinus"? 

§ 73. Religion, Arts, Sciences, fyc, during the Fourth Period. 

[310] What circumstances were preparing the way for the recep- 

d tion of Christianity in Africa'? How was the influence of the 
papacy endangered during this period "? What was the great 
object of the councils of Basle and Constance 1 Was this ob- 
ject attained 1 What terrible pestilence devastated Europe 
in the fourteenth century 1 What was the result of renewed 
attempts to reunite the Greek and Latin Churches "? Who 
refused to recognize the proceedings of this synod'? 
[311, c] How was the spirit of political combination manifested 
in Germany 1 By what means was the power of the French 

D kings augmented 1 What was the result of an opposite poli- 
cy in Germany'? What system was maintained in Italy"? 

a By means of what state 1 What was the constitution of the 
East 1 What was the most remarkable peculiarity in the ad- 
ministration of justice at this period'? 
[312] Mention the three causes which united to produce new life 

b in the sciences. To what circumstances do you ascribe the 

c revival of the study of classical literature '? By whom was a 
better taste in literature introduced and propagated"? By 
whom was the art of printing invented 1 By whom was he 

D assisted"? What was the first book printed"? What distinc- 

A tion existed in the scholastic Aristotelic philosophy 1 By 
what circumstances were the studies of geography, mathe- 
matics, and medicine severally promoted 1 
[313, b] In what country did poetry most flourish 1 Name a few 
of the most distinguished Italian writers. What dialect be- 

c came the language of Italian literature 1 Who was the earli- 
est German prose writer'? Who was the father of English 
poetry 1 What new school of architecture arose during this 

D period 1 Where were the best architects 1 Who was the 
inventor of perspective 1 Who were the most distinguished 
masters in the earlier Cologne and Flemish schools 1 In what 

a country, and when, was copper-plate printing invented 1 In 
whose hands was the maritime trade of the South 1 Between 
what nations was the command of the Mediterranean at first 

B divided 1 What advantages were obtained by Venice during 
the long war 1 To what confederation did the coasts of wes- 
tern and northern Europe belong 1 Of how many cities did 
this union consist 1 Name its three branches. What divi- 



208 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK, ETC. 

c sion took place at a later period 1 Where were its principal 
depots 1 What city was at last recognized as the chief of the 

D Union 1 In whose hands was the overland trade 1 ? What 
fairs were in general repute towards the end of this period 1 
Where was the principal emporium of the French overland 
trade 1 



APPENDIX. 



REFERENCES FOR A FULLER COURSE. 

In preparing the following references, I have confined myself 
to such works as are generally found in every good library, with- 
out aiming at even a partial bibliography of the Middle Ages, 
which will be given in another place. The student will also find 
some useful hints in Smith's Lectures, although the references in 
that work to Continental and French history are very imperfect 
even in the last edition. 

(The Arabic numerals refer to the Sections in the text.) 

FIRST RERIOD. 

§ 1. The original sources for the ancient Germans are Tacitus 
Germania (V. the valuable notes, though too brief, in Tyler's 
edition) and Gsesar de Bello Gall., L. VI. 

. Moderns. V. Greene's Historical Series, v. 3, ch. 1 ; also Hist. 
Geography, ch. 2 ; Gibbon, ch. 9 and part of 10 (Milman's edi- 
tion) ; Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 3. 

§8. V. Greene's Hist. Series, ch. 2 ; Gibbon, ch. 39, 41, 43, 45 ; 
Sismondi, ch. 9, 10, 11 ; Lord Mahon's Bellisarius. 

§ 9. Hist. Series, ch. 1, 84 ; ch. 5, 73 ; Gibbon, ch. 33, 36. 37, 
41 ; Sismondi. ch. 6, 7, 8, 10. 

§ 10. Hist. Series, 33. 

$11. Hist. Series, ch. 11, §11; Gibbon, ch. 31, 35, 36, 38, 51; 
Sismondi. 6, 7, 8, 15. 

§ 12. Hist. Series, 51, 52, pass. ; Gibbon, ch. 25, 31, 38 ; Sis- 
mondi, 8. 

()13. Hist. Ser., ch. 4, part 1; Gibbon, ch. 35, 38; Sismondi, 
8, 9, 11, 12. 

§14. Hist. Ser., ch. 4, part 2; ch. 6, pass; Gibbon, by Index. 

<\ 15. Hist. Ser., ch. 5 ; Gibbon and Sismondi, by Index. 

§ 16. Hist. Ser., ch. 7 ; Gibbon, ch. 50, 51, part of 52 ; Sis- 
mondi. 13, 14, part of 15; Iiwing's Mahomet and his Successors; 
Hallam's Middle Ages, ch. 6; Bush, Life of Mahomet (Fam. 
Lib.). 



210 APPENDIX. 

§ 17. Hist. Ser., ch. 5, pass. ; Gibbon, cb. 8, part of 18, 24, 25, 
42, 46 ; Sismondi, 3, 10, 12, 14. 

§ 18. Hist. Ser., cb. 17 ; Gibbon, by Index. 
§ 19. Hist. Ser., cb. 17 ; Gibbon, by Index. 



SECOND PERIOD. 

§ 20. V. Hist. Ser., ch. 8, 9 ; Gibbon, 49 ; Sismondi, 16, 17, 18, 
19, 20 ; Hallani's Middle Ages, cb. 1, p. 1 ; James's History of 
Charlemagne. 

621. Hist. Ser., cb. 11 ; Gibbon, cb. 49; Sismondi, pass. 

§22. Hist. Ser., ch. 11. 

§ 23. Hist. Ser., ch. 11 ; Gibbon, ch. 49 ; Sismondi, 23 ; Hal- 
lam, parts of ch. 5. 

§24. Hist. Ser., ch. 11; Gibbon, 56; Hallam, ch. 5, part of 
ch. 7. 

§ 25. Hist. Series, ch. 10, 11 ; Sketches of Venetian History 
(Family Library) ; Gibbon, by Index, and ch. 56 ; Sismondi, 
Italian Republics (Cab. Cyc). ch. 1. 

ft 26. Hist. Ser., ch. 9; Hallain, ch. 1, part 1. 

§ 27. Hist. Ser., ch. 9. 

§28. Hist. Ser., ch. 3; Hume (Alfred), Lingard id. Turner 
Anglo Saxons, pass. 

§ 29. Hist. Ser., eh. 3 ; Hume, Lingard, Turner, by Index. 

§30. Hist. Ser., cb. 10; Thierry's History of the Norman Con- 
quests ; Hume ; Line-ard ; Turner. 

§32. Hist, Ser., 89. 

§33. Hist. Ser., ch. 7, part 2; Hallam, ch. 4. 

§36, 37, 38, 39, Hist. Ser., ch. 17. 



THIRD PERIOD. 

§41. Hist. Ser., ch. 12; Gibbon, ch. 58, 59, part of 60; Mill's 
History of the Crusades ; James's do. 

§42, 43, 44. Hist. Ser., ch. 11, §4, id. nos. 217, 218; Hallam, 
ch. 3, p. 1, ch. 5; Sismondi. Ital. Repub., chn, 2, 3. 

§45. Hist. Ser., ch. 14; Sismondi, Ital. Repub., pass. 

§46. Hist. Ser., cb. 15, §1. 

§47. Hist. Ser., ch. 16, §2. 

§48, 49. Hist. Ser.. ch. 18; Hallam, ch. 4. 

§50. Hist. Ser., ch. 12. 

§52. Gibbon, ch. 57. 

§ 53. Gibbon, ch. 64. 

§54 et sq. Hist. Ser., ch. 17. 

§ 59. Hallam, ch. 9. 



APPENDIX. 211 



FOURTH PERIOD. 

§ 60. Koch, Revolutions of Europe, period 5th, part of 6th ; 
Hist. Ser., pass. 

§61. Hist. Ser., ch. 14; Koch, Rev. of Europe, period 5th, 
part of 6th. 

', 62. Hist. Ser., ch. 15, 16 ; Koch, ut sup. 

1 63. Hist. Ser., ch. 15, 16; Koch, ut sup. 

,64. Hist. Ser., ch. 18. 

1 65, 66, 67. Hist. Ser., ch. 19. 

,68, 69, 70, 71, 72. Hist. Ser., ch. 17. 

,73. Hist. Ser., ch. 20; Hallam, ch. 9. 



THE END. 



BOJESEN AND ARNOLD'S 

If OUALS of GREEK and ROMAN ANTIQUITIES 



A MANUAL OF GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

BY DR. E. F. BOJESEN, 

Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in the University of Uoro. 

Translated from the German. 

BWTED, WITf. .lOTES AND A COMPLETE SERIES OF QUESTIONS, BY THE REV. THOMAJ 
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•»tRST AMERICA!* EDITION, REVISED WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS 

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19 



A MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, 

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ANUAL 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 



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PRINCIPAL TUTOR IN THB GYMNASIUM OP DUREN. 

Translated from the German. 
EDITED BY THE REV. THOMAS K. ARNOLD, M. A. 

Author of a Series of" Greek and Latin Text-Books." 

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18 



THE SHAKSPEAMAN READEB,.' 

4 COLLECTION DF THE MOST APPROVED PLAYS OF 

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Carefully Revised, with Introductory and Explanatory Notes, and a Memoir 

of the Author. Prepared expressly for the use of Classes, 

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The Man, whom Nature's self hath made 

To mock herself, and Truth to imitate. — Spenser. 

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To impress upon the mind of the pupil that words are the exposition of thought, and that in 
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that adopted in any similar undertaking — "Bowdler's Family Shakspeare " not even excepted; — 
ami simply, because I practically know the impossibility of introducing Shakspeare as a Class 
Book, or as a satisfactory Reading Book for Families without this precautionary revision.— 
Extract from the Preface. 



(NEARLY READY.) 

MANUAL OE THE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 

OF THE 

MIDDLE AGES. 

ranslated from the French of M. Des Michels, Rector of the College of Rouen, 
with Additions and Corrections. 

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16 



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first American, from the Eighty-fourth London Edition. With large Aadiflon» 

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17 



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Foresti has preferred modern Italian writers to the old school of novelists, historians, and poets. 
In this he has done a good thing ; for the Italian Reader contains the modem language. True, 
ihere are some innovations, some changes which many would deem a departure from original 
punty, but nevertheless it is the language which one finds and hears spoken in Italy. These 
changes have gone on under the eye and against the stern authority of the Academy delta Crusca, 
and in their magnificent new dictionary, new in process of publication, they have found them- 
selves compelled to insert many words which are the growth not only of modern necessity, but 
of caprice. 

" The selections in the Italian Reader are from popular authors, such as Botta, Manzoni, 
Machiavelli, Villani, and others. They are so made as not to constitute mere exercises, but con- 
tain distinct relations so complete as to gratify the reader and engage his attention while they 
instruct. This is a marked improvement on that old system which exacted much labor without 
enlisting the sympathies of the student. The selections from Manzoni, for example, are from 
the " Promessi Sposi," one of the noblest works of fiction ever issued from the press — a work 
bo popular as to have gone through an incredible number of editions in Italy, while it has been 
translated into every language of Europe. There have been, we believe, no less than three dis- 
tinct English translations made, two of which were done in this country. The Reader contains 
six extracts from this novel, among which are the beautiful episodes of Father Cristoforo and 
thie Nun oI'Monza, and a description of the famine and plague of Milan in the year 1630. The 
account of the plague rivals the celebrated one of Boccacio in his Decameron. The idioms 
that occur in the selections are explained by a glossary appended to each. The Italian Reader 
can with confidence be recommended to students in the language as a safe and sure guide. After 
mastering it, the Italian poets and other classicists may be approached with confidence." — Savor* 
nah Republican. 

ll 



dtaura. 

OLLENDORFF'S NEW METHOD 

OF LEARNING TO READ, WRITE, AND SPEAK 

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 

Reprinted from the Frankfort edition, to which is added a Systematic Outline of the different 

Parts of Speech, their Inflection and Use, with full Paradigms, and a 

complete List of the Irregular Verbs. 

BY GEORGE J. AOLER, A. B., 

Pnfessor of German in the University of the City of New-York. One volume, 12mo. $1 99. 

0= A KEY TO THE EXERCISES, in a separate voume. 75 cts. 

" Ollendorff's new method of Learning to Read, Write, and Speak the German Lan- 
guage, with a systematic outline of German Grammar, by George J. Atuer, is one of those rare 
works which leave nothing to be desired on the subjects of which they treat. The learner's dif- 
ficulties are so fully and exactly provided for, that a constant sense of satisfaction and progress 
is felt from the beginning to the end of the book. A bare inspection of one of the lessons will 
satisfy any one acquainted with the elements of German grammar, that it adapts itself perfectly 
to his' wants. With the systematic outline of grammar by Prof. Adler, the new method is sub- 
stantially perfect, and it is probably second in its advantages only to residence and intercourse 
with educated Germans." 

" The study of the German is becoming so essential a part of an ordinary education, that 
every work tending to facilitate the acquisition of the language should be welcomed. An Ameri- 
can edition of Ollendorff has been much wanted. His system is based upon natural principles. 
He teaches by leading the student to the acquisition of phrases, from which he deduces the rules 
of the language. The idioms are also carefully taught, and the entire construction of the system 
Is such that, if adhered to with fidelity and perseverance, it will secure such a practical know- 
ledge of the German as can be acquired by no other mode, so rapidly and thoroughly^ We 
heartily commend the book to all who really wish to understand a tongue which contains so 
many treasures. 

A PROGRESSIVE GERMAN READER, 

PREPARED WITH REFERENCE TO 

OLLENDORFF'S GERMAN GRAMMAR, 

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND A VOCABULARY, 

BY G. J. ADLER, 

Professor of the German Language and Literature in the University of the City of N. Y. 
One volume, 12mo. $1. 
The favorable reception which Ollendorff's German Grammar has received from the Ameri- 
can public, has induced the Publishers and the Editor to comply with the very general demand 
for a German Reader. 

The plan of this Reader is as follows, viz. : 

1. The pieces are both prose and poetry, selected from the best authors, and are so arranged 
as to present sufficient variety to keep alive the interest of the scholar. 

2. It is progressive in its nature, the pieces being at first very short and easy, and increasing 
in difficulty and length as the learner advances. 

3. At the bottom if the page constant references to the Grammar are made, the difficult pas- 
sages are explained and rendered. To encourage the first attempt of the learner as much as pos- 
sible, the twenty-one pieces of the first section are analyzed, and all the necessary words given at 
the bottom of the page. The notes, which at first are very abundant, diminish as the learnei 
advances. 

4. It contains _/h'e sections. The first, contains easy pieces, chiefly in prose, with all the wordi 
necessary for translating them ; the second, short pieces in prose and poetry alternately, witf 
copious notts and renderings ; the third, short popular tales of Grimm and others; the fourth 
select ballads and other poems from Buerger, Goethe, Schiller, Uhland, Schyver, Cha 
Misso, &c. ; the fifth, prose extracts from the first classics. 

5. At the end is added a vocabulary of all the words occurring in the book. 



JUST READY, 

THE PRACTICAL GERMAN GRAMMAR; 

OR, A NATURAL METHOD OF LEARNING TO READ, WRITE, AND SPEAK 

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 

By CHARLES EICHHORN. One vol. 12mo, $1. 

12 



€nnk anil iCnfiu. 



THE HISTORIES 

OF 

CAIUS CORNELIUS TACITUS, 

WITH NOTES FOR COLLEGES. 

BY W. S. TYLER, 

Professor of Languages in Amherst College. 
One volume, 12mo. $1 =00. 

The text of this edition follows, for the most part, Orelli's, Zurich, 1848, which, be»ig based oa 
a new and most faithful recension of the Medicean MS., by his friend Baiter, may justly be con- 
sidered as marking a new era in the history of the text of Tacitus. In several passages, however, 
where he has needlessly departed from the MS., I have not hesitated to adhere to it in company 
with other editors, believing, that not urrfrequently " the most corrected copies are the less correct." 
Ths various readings have been carefully compared throughout, and, if important, are referred toia 
the notes. 

The editions which have been most consulted, whether in the criticism of the text or in the 
preparation of the notes, are, besides Orelli's, those of Walther, Halle, 1831 ; Ruperti, Hanove r 
I8:i9 ; and Doderlein, Halle, 1847. * * * * 

It vvili be seen, that there are not unfrequent references to my edition of the Germania and 
Agricula. These are not of such a nature, as to render this incomplete without that, or essentially 
dependent upon it Still, if both editions are used, it will be found advantageous to read the 
Germania and Agricola first. The Treatises were written in that order, and in that order they best 
illustrate the history of the author's mind. The editor has found in his experience as a teacher, 
that students generally read them in that way with more facility and pleasure, and he has con- 
sinicied nis notes accordingly. It is hoped, that the notes will be found to contain not only the 
grammatical, but likewise all the geographical, archaeological and historical illustrations, that are 
necessary to render the author intelligible. The editor has at least endeavored to avoid the fault, 
which Lord Bacon says " is over usual in annotations and commentaries, viz., to blanch the 
obscure places, and discourse upon the plain." But it has been his constant, not to say his chief 
aim, to carry students 'teyond the dry details of grammar and lexicography, and introduce them 
into a familiar acquaintance and lively sympathy with the author and his times, and with that 
great empire, of whose degeneracy and decline in its beginnings he has bequeathed to us so profound 
and instructive a history. The Indexes have been prepared with much labor and care, and, it if 
believed, will add materially to the value of the work. — Extract from Preface. 



THE GERMANIA AND AGRICOLA 

OF 

-CAIUS CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

WITH NOTES FOR COLLEGES. 

BY W. S. TYLER, 

Professor of the Greek and Latin Languages in Amherst College. 
Oue very neat volume, 12mo. 62£ cents. 

" Ws welcome the book as a useful addition to the classical literature of our country. It is *wr* 
•orrectly and elegantly prepared and printed. Thirteen pages are occupied by a well-written Life 
Of Tacitus, in w"l 'ch not - merely outward events are narrated, but the character of the bistoi.ao, 
both as a man ana a writer, is minutely and faithfully drawn. The notes to each ot the tieatiset 
are introduced by a general critique upon the merits and matter of the work. The body ot th/s 
notes is drawn up with care, learning, and judgment. Points of style and grammatical const.au- 
tifMK and historical references, are ably illustrated. We have been struck with the elegant 
precision which marks' these notes: they hit the happy medium between the too much oi some 
commentators, and the to u little of others."— JVo?-*A American Review. 

Anion" the numeious classical Professors who have highly commended and introduced this 
voinme are FutroN of Howard, Lincoln of Brown University, Crosby of Dartmouth, Coi.xhas 
of Princeton, North of Hamilton, Packard of Bowdoin. Owen of New-York, CmMPLiN oJ 
WatervUle, &c &.c 



* 






fork rnifr Intra. 



TITUS LIVIUS. 



CHIEFLY FROM THE TEXT OF ALSCHEFSKI. 

WITH 

ENGLISH NOTES, GRAMMATICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 

TOGETHER 
WITH A GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL INDEX. 

BY J. L. LINCOLN, 

Professor of Latin in Brown University. 

WITH AN ACCOMPANYING- PLAN OF ROME, AND A MAP OF THE PASSAGE Oi HANNIBAL. 

One volume, 12mo. Price $1. 

The publishers believe that, in the edition of Livy herewith announced, a want is supplied 
which nas been universally felt ; there being previous to this no American edition furnished wit! 
the requisite apparatus for the successful prosecution of the study of this Latin author. 

OPINIONS OF CLASSICAL PROFESSORS. 

From Professor Kingsley, of Yale College. 

"I have not yet been able to read the whole of your work, but have examined it enough to ao 
satisfied that it is judiciously prepared, and well adapted to the purpose intended. We use il 
for :he present year, in connection with the edition that has been used for several years. Most 
of the class, however, have procured your edition ; and it is probable that next year it will be 
used by all." 

From Professor Tyler, of Amherst College. 

"The notes seem to me to be prepared with much care, learning, and taste ; the grammatical 
illustrations are unusually full, faithful, and able. The book has been used by our Freshman 
Class, and will I doubt not come into general use in our colleges. 

From Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College. 
" T have recommended your edition to our Freshman Class. I have no doubt that your labors 
will give a new impulse to the study of this charming classic. 

From Professor Anderson, of Walerville College. 
"A careful examination of several portions of your work has convinced me that, for the use 
of students it is altogether superior to any edition of Livy with which I am acquainted. Among 
its excellences you will permit me to name, the close attention given to particles — to the sub- 
junctive mood — the constant references to the grammars — the discrimination of words nearly 
synonymous, and the care in giving the localities mentioned in the text. The book will be here- 
after used in our college." 

From Professor Johnson, of New- York University. 

" I can at present only say that your edition pleases mo much. I shall give it to one of my 
tlasses next week. I am prepared to find it just what was wanted." 



NEARLY READY. 

WORKS OF HORACE. 

WITH ENGLISH NOTES, CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 

BY J- L. LINCOLN, 
Professor of Latin in Brown University. 

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

One volume, 12mo. 

The text of this edition will be chiefly that of Orelli ; and the No'es, besides embodying what- 
ever is valuable in the most recent and' approved German editions of Horace, will contain the 
results of the Editor's studies and experience as a College Professor, which he has been gather- 
ing and maturing for several years with a view to put'ication. It will be the aim of both the 
Publishers and the Editor to make this edition in all respects suitable to the wants of American 
schools and colleges. 



fek ml ICatnu 



C. JULIUS CAESAR'S commentaries 



GALLIC WAR. 



With English Notes, Critical and Explanatory ; A Lexicon, Geographical and 
Historical Indexes, &c. 

BY REV. J. A. SPENCER, A. M„, 

Editor of "Arnold's Series of Greek and Latin Books" etc. 

One handsome vol. 12mo, with Map. Price $1. 

The press of Messrs. Appleton is becoming prolific of superior editions of the classics used 
in schools, and the volume now before us we are disposed to regard as one of the most beautiful 
and highly finished among them all, both in its editing and its execution. The classic Latin in which 
the greatest general and the greatest writer of his age recorded his achievements, has been sadly 
corrupted in the lapse of centuries, and its restoration to a pure and perfect text is a work re- 
quiring nice discrimination and sound learning. The text which Mr. Spencer has adopted is (hat 
of Oudeudorp, with such variations as were suggested by a careful collation of the leading critics 
of Germany. The notes are as tlu/ should be, designed to aid the labors of the student, not to 
supersede them. In addition to these, the volume contains a sketch of the life of Caesar, a brief 
Lexicon of Latin words, a Historical and a Geographical Index, together with a map of the 
country in which the great Roman conqueror conducted the campaigns he so graphically de- 
scribes. The volume, as a whole, however, appears to be admirably suited to the purpose for 
which it was designed. Its style of editing and its typographical execution reminds us of Prof. 
Lincoln's excellent edition of Livy — a work which some months since had already passed to a 
second impression, and has now been adopted in most of the leading schools and -:: lieges of the 
country. — Providence Journal. 



CICERO DE OFFICII S. 

WITH CRITICAL AND PHILOLOGICAL NOTES, INDEXES, &0 

BY PROFESSOR THATCHER, 

Of Yale College, New Haven. 

One Volume, 12mo. (Just ready.) 



. CICERO'S ORATIONS. 

WITH CRITICAL AND PHILOLOGICAL NOTES, INDEXES, 

BY E, A, JOHNSON, 

Professor of Latin in the University of the City of New- York. 

One Volume, 12mo. (Nearly ready.) 



EXERCISES IN GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION, 

ADAPTED TO THE 

FIRST BOOK OF XENOPHON'S ANABASIS. 

BY JAMES R. BOISE, 

Professor in Brown University. 

One Volume, 12mo. Price Seventy-five Cents 

For the convenience of the learner, an English-Greek Vocabulary, a Catalogue of the lrreg 
Ular Verbs, and an Index to the principal Grammatical Notes, have been appended 



D. Appleton Sf Co.'s Educational Publications. 



French, German, Italian, and Spanish Reading Books, 



NEW ELEMENTARY FRENCH READER. 

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Containing Fables, Select Tales, Remarkable Facts, Amusing Anecdotea, 

&c. With a Dictionary of all the Words, translated into English. 

By M. De Fivas, Member of Several Literary Societies. 

One neat volume, 16mo. Price 50 cents. 

II. 

NEW MODERN FRENCH READER. 

MORCEAUX CHOISIES DES AUTEURS MODERNES, 

A LA USAGE DE LA JEUNE3SE; 
With a Vocabulary of the New and Difficult Words and Idiomatic Phrasee 
adopted in Modern French Literature. By F. Rowan. Edited by 
J. L. Jewett, Editor of Ollendorff's French Grammar. 
One volume, 12mo. 75 cents. 

III. 
NEW DRAMATIC FRENCH READER. 

CHEES-D'(EUVRES DRAMATIUUES 
DE LA LANGrUE FRANCAISE. 

Mifl en Ordre Progressif, et Amide's, pour en faciliter L' Intelligence. PAr 

A. G. Collot, Professor de Langues et de Litterature. 

One volume, 12mo, of 520 pages. Price $1. 

A PROGRESSIVE GERMAN READER, 

Prepared with reference to Ollendorff's German Grammar, with copious Note* 

and a Vocabulary. By G J. Adler, Professor of the German Language 

and Literature in the University of the City of New- York. 

One neat volume, 12mo. $1. 

V. 

NEW ITALIAN READER. 

CRESTOMAZIA ITALIANA: 

A Collection of Selected Pieces in Italian Prose, designed as a Class Reading- 
Book for Beginners in the Study of the Italian Language. By E. Felix 
Fokesti, LL. D., Professor of the Italian Language and Literature in 
Columbia College and in the University of the City of New- York. 
One neat volume, 12mo. Price §1. 

A NEW SPANISH READER. 

Csraisting of Passages from the most approved Authors in Prose and Verse 
arranged in Progressive Order ; 

For the use of those who wish to obtain easily a Practical Knowledge of the Castilian 

Language ; with Plain Rules for its Pronunciation, Notes Explanatory of the 

Idioms and Difficult Constructions, and a Copious Vocabulary. 

MUM a ■iqoil to Ollendorff's method of learning to riad, writs, ard inu 

THE SPANISH LANGUAGE. 

By MARIANO VELAZCUEZ DE LA CADENA, 
Editoi of Ollendorff's Spanish Grammar. One nest volume I2mo. Price 81.25 



(ftogltajf. 
A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 

•IONTAINING THE PRONUNCIATION, ETYMOLOGY, AND EXPLANATION OP ALL WORDS A> 
THORIZED BY EMINENT WRITERS J 

To which are added, a Vocabulary or' the Roots of English Words, and an Accented 
List of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names 

BY ALEXANDER REID ? A.M., 

Rector of the Circus School, Edinburgh. 

With.l Critical Preface, by Henry Reed, Professor of English Literature in the University a 

Pennsylvania, and an Appendix, showing the Pronunciation of nearly 300Q * 

the most important Geographical Names. One volume, Ylw 

of nearly 600 pages, bound in Leather. Price $1 

Among the wants of our time was a good dictionary of our own language, especially adapted 
for academies and schools. The books which have long been in use were of little value to the 
junior students, being too concise in the definitions, and immethodical in the arrangement 
Reid's English Dictionary was compiled expressly to develop the precise analogies ano ^.triou 
properties of the authorized words in general use, by the standard authors and orators who use 
our vernacular tongue. 

Exclusive of the large number of proper names which are appended, this Dictionary includes 
four especial improvements — and when their essential value to the student is considered, the 
stealing character of the work as a hand-book of our language will be instantly perceived. 

The primitive word is distinguished by a larger type ; and when there are any derivatives 
from it, they follow in alphabetical order, and the part of speech is appended, thus furnishing a 
complete classification of all the connected analogous words of the same species. " 

With this facility to comprehend accurately the determinate meaning of the English word, is 
conjoined a rich illustration for the linguist. The derivation of all the primitive words is dis- 
tinctly given, and the phrases of the languages whence they are deduced, whether composite or 
eimple ; so that the student of foreign languages, both ancient and modern, by a reference to 
any word, can ascertain the source whence it has been adopted into our own form of speech. 
This is a great acquisition to the person who is anxious to use words in their utmost clearness 
of maa.ii.'.g. 

To these advantages is subjoined a Vocabulary of the Roots of English Words, which is of 
peculiar value to the collegian. The fifty pages which it includes, furnish the linguist with a 
wide-spread field of research, equally amusing and instructive. There is also added an Ac 
cented List, to the number of fifteen thousand, of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names. 



• BURNHAM'S SERIES OF ARITHMETICS 

FOR 

COMMON SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 

PART FIRST is a work on Mental Arithmetic. The philosophy of the mode of teaching 
adopted in this work, is : commence where the child commences, and proceed as the child pro- 
ceeds : fall in with his own mode of arriving at truth ; aid him to think for himself, and do nof 
the thinki ig for him. Hence a series of exercises are given, by which the child is made familiar 
with the process, which he has already gone through with in acquiring his present knowledge. 
These exercises interest the child, and prepare him for future rapid progress. The plan is 29 
clearly unfolded by illustration and example, that he who follows it can scarcely fail to securo 
OR the part of his pupils, a thorough knowledge of the subject. 

PART SECOND is a work on Written Arithmetic. It is the result of a long experience 
m teaching, and contains sufficient of Arithmetic for the practical business purposes of life. It 
illustrates mo'e fully and applies more extendedly and practically the principle of Cancellation 
than any other Arithmetical treatise. This method as here employed in connection with the or- 
dinary, furnishes a variety of illustrations, which cannot fail to interest and instruct the scholar. 
It is a prominent idea throughout, to impress upon the mind of the scholar the truth that he will 
never discover, nor need a new principle beyond the simple rules. The pupil is shown, by a 
variety of new modes of illustration, that new names and new positions introduce no new prin- 
ciple, but that they are merely matters of convenience. Fractions are treated and explained the 
Bame as whole numbers. Formulas are also given for drilling the scholar upon the Blackboard, 
which will be found of service to many teachers of Common Schools. 



THE 

FIE ST HISTQEY OF EOME, 

WITH QUESTIONS. 

BY E. M. SE WELL, 

Author of Amy Herbert, &c. &c. One volume, 16mo. 50 cts. 

Extract from Editor's Preface. 

" History is the naiTative of real events in the order and circumstances in which they occurred 
aad of all histories, that of Rome comprises a series of events more interesting and instructive f* 
youthful readers than any other that has ever been written. 

" Of the manner in which Miss Sewell has executed this work we can scarcely speak in terms 
of approbation too strong. Drawing her materials from the best — that is to say, the most reli- 
able — sources, she has incorporated them in a narrative at once unostentatious, perspicuous. 
anci graphic; manifestly aiming throughout to be clearly understood by those for whom she 
wrote, and to impress "deeply and permanently on their minds what she wrote; and in both 
of these aims we think she has been eminently successful." 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY, 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 

BY THOMAS KE1GHTLEY. 

One vol. 16mo. 42 cts. 
" This is a neat little volume, and well adapted to the purpose for which it was prepared. It 
presents, in a very compendious and convenient form, every thing relating to the subject, 0/ 
importance to the young student." — L. 1. Star. 



r F N F T! AT 

HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION IN EUEOPE, 

FROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
BY M. GUI ZOT. 

Eighth A merican, from the second English, edition, with occasional Notes, by C. S. Henry, D. D. 
One volume, 12mo. 75 cts. 

" M. Guizot, in his instructive lectures, has given us an epitome of modern histor r , distm-: 
guished by all the merit which, in another department, renders Blackstone a subject of such 
peculiar and unbounded praise. A work closely condensed, including nothing useless, omit- 
ting nothing essential ; written with grace, and conceived and arranged with consummate 
»bility." — Boston Traveller. 

t£S~ The above valuable work has been introduced into Harvard University, Union 
College, University of Pennsylvania, New- York University, Sfc. #c. 



IN PREPARATION, 

EASY LESSONS IN LANDSCAPE, 

FOR THE PENCIL. 

BY F. N. OTIS. 

IN THREE PARTS, EACH CONTAINING SIXTEEN LESSONS. 

Price, 38 cts. each part. 

These Lessons are intended for the use of schools and families, and are so arranged that 
With the aid of the accompanying directions, teachers unacquainted with drawing may intro 
duce it successfully into their schools; and those unable to avail themselves of the od vantagal 
Ufa teacher, may pursue the atudy of drawing without difficulty. 

1 . 



iBiigltsjj. 
PROF. MANDEVILLE'S READING BOOKS. 

I. PRIMARY, OR FIRST READER. Price 10 cents. 

II. SECOND READER. Price 16 cents. 

These two Readers are formed substantially on the same plan ; anc the second is a continua- 
tion of the first. The design of both is, to combine a knowledge of the meaning and pronuncia- 
tion of words, with a knowledge of their grammatical functions. The parts of speech are in- 
troduced successively, beginning with the articles, these are followed by the uemonstrative pre- 
nouns ; and these again by others, class after class, until all that are requisite to form a sentence 
jave been separately considered ; when the common reading lessons begin. 

The Second Reader reviews the ground passed over in the Primary, but adds largely to th 
(mount of information. The child is here also taught to read writing as well as printed matter; 
and in the reading lessons, attention is constantly directed to the different ways in which 
sentences are formed and connected, and of the peculiar manner in which each of them is deliv- 
ered. All who have examined these books, have pronounced them a decided and important ad- 
vance on every other of the same class in use. 

m. THIRD READER. Price 25 cents. 

IV. FOURTH READER. Price 38 cents. 

In the first two Readers, the main object is to make the pupil acquainted wiu the meaning 
and functions of words, and to' impart facility in pronouncing them in sentential connection : the 
leading design of these, is to form a natural, flexible, and varied delivery. Accordingly, the 
Third Reader opens with a series of exercises on articulation and modulation, containing numer- 
ous examples for practice on the elementary sounds (including errors to be corrected) and on the 
different movements of the voice, produced by sentential structure, by emphasis, and by the pas- 
sions. The habits formed by these exercises, which should be thoroughly, as they can be easily 
mastered, under intelligent instruction, find scope for improvement and confirmation in the 
reading lessons which follow, in the same book and that which succeeds. 

These lessons have been selected with special reference to the following peculiarities : 1st. 
Colloquial character ; 2d, Variety of sentential structure ; 3d, Variety of subject matter ; 4th 
Adaptation to the progressiv; development of the pupil's mind; and, as far as possible, 5th, 
Tendency to excite moral and religious emotions. Great pains have been taken to make tha 
books in these respects, which are^ in fact, characteristic ol the whole series, superior to any 
oAers in use ; with what success, a brief comparison will readily show. 

V. THE FIFTH READER ; OR, COURSE OF READING. Price 75 cents. 

VI. THE ELEMENTS OF READING AND ORATORY. Price $1. 

These books are designed to cultivate the literary taste, as well as the understanding and voca. 
powers of the pupil. 

The Course op Reading comprises three parts ; the first part containing a more elaborate 
description of elementary sounds and the parts of speech grammatically considered than waa 
deemed necessary in the preceding works ; here indispensable : part second, a complete classifi- 
cation and description of every sentence to be found in the English, or any other language; ex- 
amples ol" which in every degree of expansion, from a few words to the half of an octavo page 
in length, are adduced, and arranged to be read ; and as each species has its peculiar delivery as 
well as structure, both are learned at the same time ; part third, paragraphs ; or sentences in 
their connection unfolding general thoughts, as in the common reading books. It may be ob- 
served that the selections of sentences in part second, and of paragraphs in part third, comprise 
some of the finest gems in the language : distinguished alike for beauty of thought and facility 
of diction. If not found in a school book, they might be approprately called " elegant extracts " 

The Elements op Reading and Oratory closes the series with an exhibition of the whole 
theory and art of Elocution exclusive of gesture. It contains, besides the classification of sen- 
tences already referreu is, but here presented with fuller statement and illustration, the laws of" 
punctuation and delivery deduced trom it: the whole followed by carefully selected oieces fot 
sentential analysis and vocal practice. 

The Result.— The student who acquaints himself thoroughly with the content of this 
book, will, as numerous experiments have proved; 1st, Acquire complete knowledge of ths 
structure of the language ; 2d, Be able to designate any sentence of any book by name at a 
glance ; 3d, Be able to declare with equal rapidity its proper punctuation ; 4th, Be able to delare, 
and with sufficient practice to give its proper delivery. Such are a few of the general character- 
istics of the series of school books which the publishers now offer to the friends and patrons 
of a sound common school and academic education. For more particular information, reference 
is respectfully made to the " Hints," which may be found at the beginning of each volume. 

N. B. The punctuation in all these books conforms, in the main, to the sense and proper de- 
livery of every sentence, and is a guide to both. When a departure from the proper punctuation 
occurs, the proper delivery is indicated. As reading books are usually punctuated, it is a matter 
of surprise that children should learn to read at all. 

*.* The above series of Reading Books are already very extensively introduced and com- 
mended by tne most experienced Teachers in the country. "Prof. Mandeville's system is emi- 
nently original, scientific and practical, and destined wherever it is introduced to supersede at 
Mice all others." 

22 



§xnk aul Mil 



ARNOLD'S CLASSICAL SERIES. 

i. 

A FIRST AND SECOND LATIN BOOK 

AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. By Thomas K. Arnold, A.M. Revised and can All's 
Corrected, by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo., 75 cts. 

it 
LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION: 

A Practical Introduction to Latin Prose Composition. By Thomas K. Arnold, A. ML 
Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $1. 



FIRST GREEK BOOK; 

With Easy Exercises and Vocabulary. By Thomas K. Arnold, A. M. Reviseo. and Coj 
rected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., 63 cts. 

IV. 

GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION: 

A Practical Introduction to Greek Prose Composition. By Thomas K. Arnold, A M. 
Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo., 75 cts. 



GREEK READING BOOK, 

For the Use of Schools; containing the substance of the Practical Introduction to Greek Con 

struing, and a Treatise on the Greek Particles, by the Rev. Thomas K. Arnold, 

A. M., and also a Copious Selection from Greek Authors, with English 

Notes, Critical and Explanatory, and a Lexicon, by 

J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $\ 50 



CORNELIUS NEPOS; 

With Practical Questions and Answers, and an Imitative Exercise on each Chapter. By 

Thomas K. Arnold, A. M. Revised, with Additional Notes, by Prof. Johnson, 

Professor of the Latin Language in the University of the City of 

New- York. 12mo. A new, enlarged edition, with 

Lexicon, Index, &c, $1. 

"Arnold's Greek and Latin Series. — The publication of this valuable collection of 
Classical school books may be regarded as the .presage of better things in respect to the mode of 
teaching and acquiring languages. Heretofore boys have been condemned to the drudgery o* 
going over Latin and Greek Grammar without the remotest conception of the value of wha 
they were learning, and every day becoming more and more disgusted with the dry and un- 
meaning task; but now, by Mr. Arnold's admirable method— substantially the same with that of 
Ollendorff— the moment they take up the study of Latin or Greek, they begin to learn sentences. 
to acquire ideas, to see how the Romans and Greeks expressed themselves, how their mode of 
expression -differed from ours, and by degrees they lay up a stock of knowledge which is utterly 
astonishing to those who have dragged on month alter month in the old-fashioned, dry, and 
tedious way of learning languages. 

" Mr. Arnold, in fact, has had the good sense to adopt the system of nature. A child learns 
his own language by imitating what he hears, and constantly repeating it till it is fastene J in 
the memoiy ; in the same way Mr. A. puts the pupil immediately to work at Exercises in I urn 
and Greek, involving the elementary principles of the language — words are supplied— the iv ide 
of putting them together is told the pupil — he is shown how the ancients expressed their ideas ; 
and then, by repeating these things again and again — iterum iterumque — the docile puril has 
them indelibly impressed upon his memory and rooted in his understanding. 

"The American Editor is a thorough classical scholar, and has been a practical teacher for 
years in this city. He has devoted the utmost care to a complete revision of Mr. Arnold's works 
has corrected several errors of inadvertence or otherwise, has rearranged and improved various 
matters in the early volumes of the series, and has attended most diligently to the accurate print- 
ing and mechanical execution of the whole. We anticipate most confidently the speedy adoption 
of these works in our schools and colleges." 

*.* Arnold's Scries of Classical Works has attained a circulation almost unparalleled, being 
uitxoduced into nearly all the Colleges and leading Educational Institutions in the United States 




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